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We assess progress toward the protection of 50% of the terrestrial biosphere to address the species-extinction crisis and conserve a global ecological heritage for future generations. Using a map of Earth’s 846 terrestrial ecoregions, we show that 98 ecoregions (12%) exceed Half Protected; 313 ecoregions (37%) fall short of Half Protected but have sufficient unaltered habitat remaining to reach the target; and 207 ecoregions (24%) are in peril, where an average of only 4% of natural habitat remains. We propose a Global Deal for Nature—a companion to the Paris Climate Deal—to promote increased habitat protection and restoration, national- and ecoregion-scale conservation strategies, and the empowerment of indigenous peoples to protect their sovereign lands. The goal of such an accord would be to protect half the terrestrial 2050 to halt the extinction crisis while sustaining human livelihoods.

An essential foundation of any science is a standard lexicon. Any given conservation project can be described in terms of the biodiversity targets, direct threats, contributing factors at the project site, and the conservation actions that the project team is employing to change the situation. These common elements can be linked in a causal chain, which represents a theory of change about how the conservation actions are intended to bring about desired project outcomes. If project teams want to describe and share their work and learn from one another, they need a standard and precise lexicon to specifically describe each node along this chain. To date, there have been several independent efforts to develop standard classifications for the direct threats that affect biodiversity and the conservation actions required to counteract these threats. Recognizing that it is far more effective to have only one accepted global scheme, we merged these separate efforts into unified classifications of threats and actions, which we present here. Each classification is a hierarchical listing of terms and associated definitions. The classifications are comprehensive and exclusive at the upper levels of the hierarchy, expandable at the lower levels, and simple, consistent, and scalable at all levels. We tested these classifications by applying them post hoc to 1191 threatened bird species and 737 conservation projects. Almost all threats and actions could be assigned to the new classification systems, save for some cases lacking detailed information. Furthermore, the new classification systems provided an improved way of analyzing and comparing information across projects when compared with earlier systems. We believe that widespread adoption of these classifications will help practitioners more systematically identify threats and appropriate actions, managers to more efficiently set priorities and allocate resources, and most important, facilitate cross-project learning and the development of a systematic science of conservation.

We introduce the work providing a synthetic description of the diversity and phyletic structure of freshwater fish in the Neotropical Region, especially emphasizing that of Brazil. This is accompanied by a discussion about environments of fish from small to medium sized to large, taking into account how it shaped their respective biologies/ecologies, as well as what they imply for their use by humans. We present, as figures, the results of our exploratory analysis of Brazilian Red Book of Threatened Species of Fauna (2018), focusing on the small-sized ones, with up to 15 cm of standard length. We continue to present the main human impacts in small fish environments, along with those suffered by medium to large fish environments, and then follow by their respective deleterious effects. Finally, we present a general synthesis, reinforcing the enormous importance of small fish conservation and their respective preferred environments, followed by our main conclusions, and possible conservation strategies. Resumo: Iniciamos o trabalho fornecendo uma descrição sintética da diversidade e estrutura filética dos peixes de água doce da Região Neotropical, com ênfase naquela do Brasil, acompanhada de uma exposição sobre onde vivem os peixes de pequeno porte e os de porte médio a grande, levando em conta como isso moldou suas respectivas biologias/ecologias, e o que as mesmas implicam para seu uso pelos seres humanos. São apresentados, sob a forma de figuras, os resultados de uma análise exploratória dos dados sobre as 311 espécies de peixes ósseos de água doce contidos no Livro Vermelho da Fauna Brasileira Ameaçada de Extinção (2018), com ênfase naquelas de pequeno porte, com até 15 cm de comprimento padrão. Continuamos apresentando os principais impactos antrópicos nos ambientes de peixes de pequeno porte, juntamente com aqueles sofridos pelos ambientes de peixes de portes médio a grande, seguidos dos seus respectivos efeitos deletérios. Finalmente, concluímos com uma síntese geral, reforçando a enorme importância da conservação dos peixes de pequeno porte e seus ambientes preferenciais, e estratégias possíveis para conservação dos mesmos.

Landscape-scale approaches to conservation stem largely from the classic ideas of reserve design: encouraging bigger and more sites, enhancing connectivity among sites, and improving habitat quality. Trade-offs are imposed between these four strategies by the limited resources and opportunities available for conservation programmes, including the establishment and management of protected areas, and wildlife-friendly farming and forestry. Although debate regarding trade-offs between the size, number, connectivity and quality of protected areas was prevalent in the 1970–1990s, the implications of the same trade-offs for ongoing conservation responses to threats from accelerating environmental change have rarely been addressed. Here, we reassess the implications of reserve design theory for landscape-scale conservation, and present a blueprint to help practitioners to prioritise among the four strategies. We consider the new perspectives placed on landscape-scale conservation programmes by twenty-first century pressures including climate change, invasive species and the need to marry food security with biodiversity conservation. A framework of the situations under which available theory and evidence recommend that each of the four strategies be prioritized is provided, seeking to increase the clarity required for urgent conservation decision-making.

Citizen Science (CS) provides valuable data to assist professional scientists in making informed decisions on macroinvertebrate conservation. However, CS is not developed nor implemented uniformly across the globe, and there are biases and challenges in the extent that it can contribute to global macroinvertebrate conservation. Here, a meta-analysis was performed using 107 Citizen Science Projects (CSPs) to identify underlying biases related to taxon representativity, country wealth, and demographic participation. Macroinvertebrate orders with the highest representativity were Lepidoptera and Hymenoptera, accounting for 53% of represented macroinvertebrate groups. The orders Scorpiones, Parasitiformes, and Spirobolida had proportionately the highest IUCN threat statuses, but significantly lower CSP representation, indicating that these orders require more public attention. Hymenoptera, Odonata, Coleoptera, Hemiptera, Diptera and Clitellata had the highest levels of Data Deficient species, suggesting that the primary objective of CSPs targeted at these orders should be collecting distribution and abundance data to improve Red List assessments. Global distribution of CSPs was uneven and the number of CSPs per country was positively correlated with national Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and GDP per capita, suggesting that countries with relatively low GDP face challenges to successfully establish and maintain CSPs. Establishing new CSPs can assist macroinvertebrate conservation in these countries, where biodiversity levels are often high. To accommodate these biases, CSP development should adopt a bottom-up approach, in which CSPs are designed to address data gaps, and to address local socio-economic limitations and cultural ideologies. Guidelines for such development are presented here, with emphasis on addressing societal variations and inter-disciplinary communication gaps to ensure equitable opportunities for CSP participation.

This article considers the utility of DNA barcodes for conservation. DNA barcoding is a molecular tool that uses standardised genetic primers, traditionally the 600- to 800-segments of the mitochondrial gene cytochrome c oxidase I, to classify species. It has become increasingly popular as an efficient way of studying and categorising species to prioritise conservation efforts. A challenge remains, however, in using this information to provide a universally acceptable species concept. Genetic barcoding may focus conservation strategies on populations that have differences in mitochondrial DNA rather than on species. DNA barcodes might also provide potentially useful information about taxa that are relatively well studied—rather than those that require more research. The argument is made that DNA barcoding can provide useful taxonomic data, but should be used with caution to prevent it from being used out of context. DNA barcoding is an increasingly fashionable and novel concept that has generated optimism in enhancing biodiversity assessments—however, this approach should be used in conjunction with other methods for effective conservation efforts.

South Africa has the world's richest temperate flora, with 20,456 indigenous vascular plant taxa recorded. With the current estimate of the global flora at 379,881 taxa, 5% of the world's plant diversity is represented within South African borders. Between 2004 and 2008, South African botanists completed a comprehensive assessment of the status of the South African flora using the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) Red List categories and criteria, version 3.1. South Africa is the first floristically megadiverse country to fully assess the status of its entire flora and to achieve Target 2 of the Global Strategy for Plant Conservation (GSPC): \"[a]n assessment of the conservation status of all known plant species, as far as possible, to guide conservation action.\" Herein, we discuss the critical success factors that allowed an assessment of such a megadiverse flora within five years. Establishing a centralized team of ecologists to develop Red Lists, collaborating with a wide range of botanical experts, streamlining the assessment process via automation, and establishing a data management system that served local conservation needs were crucial to the success of the project. Utilizing the IUCN categories and criteria proved to be, and is suggested as, the most cost-effective measure for other megadiverse countries wanting to achieve Target 2. Quantitative assessments can be done with minimal data, and comprehensive assessments of all known taxa ensure conservation attention for a greater proportion of a flora. The example of South Africa demonstrates that conservation assessments can be done relatively cheaply in developing megadiverse countries (less than $30 per taxon for South Africa). As megadiverse countries have high numbers of endemic plant taxa, it is well worth the investment by IUCN and conservation donors to support continued and future assessment projects.

Geodiversity—the diversity of abiotic features and processes of the Earth's surface and subsurface—is an increasingly used concept in ecological research. A growing body of scientific literature has provided evidence of positive links between geodiversity and biodiversity. These studies highlight the potential of geodiversity to improve our understanding of biodiversity patterns and to complement current biodiversity conservation practices and strategies. However, definitions of geodiversity in ecological research vary widely. This can hinder the progress of geodiversity–biodiversity research and make it difficult to synthesize findings across studies. We therefore call for greater awareness of how geodiversity is currently defined and for more consistent use of the term ‘geodiversity’ in biodiversity research.

Aims Understanding broad‐scale ecological responses to global change is essential for investigating and conserving biodiversity. Sea turtles, with their ancient evolutionary history and global distribution, serve as an ideal model for understanding these ecological responses. Facing complex threats from climate change and biotic interactions, their nesting suitability patterns remain incompletely evaluated. Location Global coastlines. Methods We compiled a comprehensive dataset on global sea turtle nesting occurrences and associated predator distributions to predict sea turtle nesting suitability using predator‐constrained modelling. Next, we conducted geospatial analyses to identify conservation priorities for nesting habitats at species‐specific, continental and national scales. Results Climate and vegetation cover were primary drivers of interspecific variation in nesting suitability, while predation pressure strongly influenced spatial nesting patterns. Leatherback Turtle (Dermochelys coriacea) and Olive Ridley Turtle (Lepidochelys olivacea) were identified as the most vulnerable species in the future, with an average loss of suitable nesting habitat of 13.97% and 15.31%, respectively. Key countries requiring high conservation attention include Australia, the USA, Madagascar, Greece, Turkey, Indonesia, Brazil and India. Main Conclusions Sea turtle nesting habitats are increasingly threatened by the combined impacts of climate change and predation. Our study highlights the urgent need for a multifaceted conservation framework—integrating species‐specific protections, regional management and national cooperation—to preserve critical nesting refugia, thereby supporting global biodiversity target 3 under the Post‐2020 Kunming‐Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework (30% habitat protection by 2030).

Recent expansion of the scale of human activities poses severe threats to Earth’s life-support systems. Increasingly, protected areas (PAs) are expected to serve dual goals: protect biodiversity and secure ecosystem services. We report a nationwide assessment for China, quantifying the provision of threatened species habitat and four key regulating services—water retention, soil retention, sandstorm prevention, and carbon sequestration—in nature reserves (the primary category of PAs in China). We find that China’s nature reserves serve moderately well for mammals and birds, but not for other major taxa, nor for these key regulating ecosystem services. China’s nature reserves encompass 15.1% of the country’s land surface. They capture 17.9% and 16.4% of the entire habitat area for threatened mammals and birds, but only 13.1% for plants, 10.0% for amphibians, and 8.5% for reptiles. Nature reserves encompass only 10.2–12.5% of the source areas for the four key regulating services. They are concentrated in western China, whereas much threatened species’ habitat and regulating service source areas occur in eastern provinces. Our analysis illuminates a strategy for greatly strengthening PAs, through creating the first comprehensive national park system of China. This would encompass both nature reserves, in which human activities are highly restricted, and a new category of PAs for ecosystem services, in which human activities not impacting key services are permitted. This could close the gap in a politically feasible way. We also propose a new category of PAs globally, for sustaining the provision of ecosystems services and achieving sustainable development goals.