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Contagious ecthyma in small ruminants: from etiology to vaccine challenges - a review
Orf virus (ORFV) is an epitheliotropic, double-stranded DNA pathogen belonging to the genus
Parapoxvirus
, and it is the causative agent of contagious ecthyma (CE) in small ruminants. It is an endemic disease on goat and sheep herds around the world. It is often a neglected disease, with impacts on herd health and productivity, while also being an occupational zoonosis. This review explores the causative agent of ovine ecthyma, its epidemiology, and clinical manifestations, with a particular emphasis on its interaction with the host’s immune system and the development of ORFV vaccines. Like other members of the
Poxviridae
family, ORFV expresses numerous immunomodulatory genes, which complicate vaccination efforts and disease management. This review highlights the challenges posed by ORFV in achieving effective immunization and discusses potential vaccine strategies to overcome these obstacles.
Journal Article
The Zika prevention handbook : everything you need to know to stay safe
\"As the Zika virus continues to spread throughout North America, people need answers. What are the origins of this virus? How does it spread? Should we be concerned? How can we stop the spread of infected mosquitos? With the increasing prevalence of Zika, concrete answers are needed now more than ever - The Zika Prevention Handbook serves as the best reference for readers to stay informed about side-effects and symptoms, and to minimize your chance of contracting the virus. The Zika virus is a mosquito-borne infection that is estimated to have originated in Africa in the mid 1940's. In the last several years, the Zika virus has infected thousands of people around the world and has spread to over 60 countries. As of August 2016, Zika-infected mosquitoes have found a new home, the United States. The Zika virus has been reported in all 50 U.S. states, in addition to hundreds of reported cases throughout Mexico and Canada. With the assistance of infectious disease expert, Laura D. Kramer, PhD, author Alexander Webb has compiled the leading research from the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Whether you're an expectant mother worried about microcephaly (a side effect of Zika that causes babies to be born with abnormally small heads), planning a vacation to a tropical area, or living in an area where these contagious mosquitoes reside, this book is guaranteed to answer all your questions and ease your fears. Readers will learn about Zika's origins, transmission of the infection, leading prevention techniques, medical testing, symptoms and diagnosis, and much more.\" --Publisher's description.
Book
Review and comprehensive analysis of knowledge, tools, and implementation gaps for the control of contagious bovine pleuropneumonia
Contagious bovine pleuropneumonia (CBPP) is a severe respiratory disease of cattle, caused by
Mycoplasma mycoides
subsp.
mycoides
, and is included in the list of notifiable diseases of the World Organisation for Animal Health (WOAH). CBPP was successfully eradicated from the USA, Australia, Europe, and parts of southern Africa, primarily through the application of drastic stamping-out policies. However, the disease remains endemic in sub-Saharan Africa, where it continues to spread despite considerable control efforts, causing significant losses and posing a serious risk of antimicrobial resistance emergence. Recognised as a major cattle disease, CBPP is included in the DISCONTOOLS database, which aims “to identify the gaps in knowledge to speed up the development of new disease control tools and to reduce the burden of animal diseases”. This work presents the outcome of a comprehensive analysis by a group of experts, who reviewed existing knowledge on CBPP aetiology, host–pathogen interactions, epidemiology, impact, and control. Key knowledge and technical gaps were identified, along with critical needs to support improved disease control and eventual eradication. These include a better understanding of the disease’s distribution, incidence and impact; the mechanisms of transmission and persistence at the population level; the molecular basis of pathogenicity and protective immune responses; the development of affordable and reliable diagnostic tools, including pen-side tests; and the design of safer, more effective, and thermostable vaccines, including DIVA and multi-valent options. In addition, cost-effective intervention strategies combining multiple control measures, such as vaccination and the rational, regulated use of antibiotics, must be developed and validated, alongside surveillance for antimicrobial resistance in the field. Social, political, and financial factors contributing to the persistence and spread of the disease must also be addressed. Importantly, based on this analysis, a set of cost-effective actions and practical recommendations has been proposed to mitigate the most critical gaps. With adequate financial, scientific, and political commitment, the eradication of CBPP remains an achievable goal.
Journal Article
Orf virus infection in a 53-year-old woman
The orf virus is one of the parapoxviruses. It occurs worldwide and its natural reservoir are sheep and goats. Infections in humans can occur through direct or indirect contact with affected animals. The infectious ulcerations usually heal spontaneously after a few weeks in immunocompetent patients. An infection must be reported to the responsible professional association if the exposure occurs in the occupational environment, for example in farmers.
Journal Article
Development and Characterization of a Recombinant galT-galU Protein for Broad-Spectrum Immunoprotection Against Porcine Contagious Pleuropneumonia
Porcine contagious pleuropneumonia (PCP), caused by Actinobacillus pleuropneumoniae (APP), is a highly contagious disease that leads to significant economic losses in the swine industry. Current vaccines are ineffective due to the presence of multiple serotypes and the absence of a predominant seasonal serotype, underscoring the need for vaccines with broad-spectrum protection. Previous studies identified galT and galU as promising antigen candidates. In this study, we expressed and characterized a soluble recombinant galT-galU protein (rgalT-galU) from the pET-28a-galT-galU plasmid. The protein, with a molecular weight of 73 kDa, exhibited pronounced immunogenicity in murine models, as indicated by a significant elevation in IgG titers determined through an indirect ELISA. This immune response was further corroborated by substantial antigen-specific splenic lymphocyte proliferation, with a stimulation index of 51.5%. Immunization also resulted in elevated serum cytokines levels of IL-4, IL-12, and IFN-γ, as detected by cytokine assays. Vaccination with rgalT-galU provided immunoprotection against three predominant APP strains (APP1, APP5b, and APP7), achieving protection rates of 71.4%, 71.4%, and 85.7%, respectively. It also effectively mitigated pulmonary lesions and neutrophil infiltration, as verified by histopathological and immunohistochemical analyses. These results indicate that rgalT-galU is a promising candidate for developing cross-protective subunit vaccines against APP infection.
Journal Article
Modeling the Effects of Vaccination and Treatment With Third‐Generation Macrolides or Oxytetracyclines on Persistence and Impact of Contagious Bovine Pleuropneumonia
This research assesses the impact of contagious bovine pleuropneumonia (CBPP) vaccination, treatment, and combined vaccination and treatment at the herd and population level in heterogeneous, stochastic, state‐transition models of CBPP transmission. Results from published trials with oxytetracycline or third‐generation macrolides (tulathromycin and gamithromycin) were used to inform parameters for antibiotic treatment. Societies have evolved and the levels of movement control responsible for the previous success of vaccination programs are no longer possible. Current vaccines, when applied in the absence of movement control, did not result in eradication. For hypothetical vaccines with 85%–95% efficacy and 3 years duration of immunity, more than 3 years of biannual vaccination would be required to reduce herd prevalence to near eradication levels. The results of treatment scenarios indicated that small‐scale, focused community‐based programs working through trained community members to systematically detect and treat suspect cases with oxytetracyclines or third‐generation macrolides can eliminate CBPP from defined endemic populations within a period of 6 months. Oxytetracylcines are effective, inexpensive, and widely available. The rapid clinical response to the third‐generation macrolides is an additional, direct incentive of interest to livestock owners and has the potential to entirely change the economics of CBPP control programs. Development and validation of effective, practical treatment protocols have the potential to reduce total antibiotic use over the current situation of widespread, haphazard use of antibiotics and enhance antibiotic stewardship. Combined programs covering regions that promote treatment of clinical cases and vaccination of the contact population at risk are of interest. Large scale treatment and vaccination approaches have the potential to eliminate infection in time frames of 2–3 years. In the future, pilot control programs based on public–private‐community partnerships should be implemented at the community level that addresses the technical strategy, the modern institutional and socioeconomic challenges, and new opportunities for control.
Journal Article
Interactions between Mycoplasma mycoides subsp. mycoides and bovine macrophages under physiological conditions
We investigated the interactions of unopsonized and opsonized Mycoplasma mycoides subsp. mycoides ( Mmm ) with bovine macrophages in vitro . Mmm survived and proliferated extracellularly on bovine macrophage cell layers in the absence of Mmm -specific antisera. Bovine complement used at non-bactericidal concentrations did neither have opsonizing effect nor promoted intracellular survival, whereas Mmm -specific antisera substantially increased phagocytosis and Mmm killing. A phagocytosis-independent uptake of Mmm by macrophages occurred at a high multiplicity of infection, also found to induce the production of TNF, and both responses were unaffected by non-bactericidal doses of bovine complement. Bovine complement used at higher doses killed Mmm in cell-free cultures and completely abrogated TNF responses by macrophages. These results provide a framework to identify Mmm antigens involved in interactions with macrophages and targeted by potentially protective antibodies and point towards a pivotal role of complement in the control of inflammatory responses in contagious bovine pleuropneumonia.
Journal Article
Seroprevalence and potential risk factors of contagious bovine pleuropneumonia in the Huambo province of Angola
From June to September 2023, we performed a cross-sectional study to estimate the seroprevalence of contagious bovine pleuropneumonia in the Huambo province of Angola; the study also characterized associated risk factors. We sampled 142 herds belonging to livestock farmers in four municipalities (Caála, Longonjo, Bailundo, and Mungo). A competitive ELISA approach was used to detect the presence of antibodies against
Mycoplasma mycoides
subspecies
mycoides
(
Mmm
) in 1647 cattle. Herd-level seropositivity was determined using a threshold that accounted for test measurement uncertainty in the laboratory. Data on herd characteristics were collected from livestock farmers using a questionnaire. We explored the relationship between 14 potential risk factors and herd seropositivity using logistic regression models. Overall, apparent herd-level seroprevalence was 55.6% (95% CI 46.9–63.1%). The likelihood that a herd was seropositive was related to the area where cattle had been purchased; it was significantly higher when animals came from the southern region of Huambo (odds ratio: 5.5; 95% CI 1.4–17.5). Although our study was limited by its sampling design (we lacked comprehensive information on the province’s farms), our findings suggest that
Mmm
infections may occur at significant levels in Huambo and highlight distribution patterns that could guide disease control strategies in livestock farming systems.
Journal Article
Molecular detection and occurrence of contagious ecthyma in goat
Contagious ecthyma or Orf is a common, contagious and zoonotic disease of small ruminants caused by orf virus. The present research was conducted to study the occurrence of Orf in goats in and around Parbhani district. Overall occurrence of Orf in goats was recorded 38.83% on the basis of PCR results. The higher occurrence of Orf recorded in the kids below 4 months of age, male, poor health status and non-descript goats. The clinical signs observed in Contagious Ecthyma affected goats were pyrexia, severe proliferative ulcerated cauliflower-like lesions around lips and scabby lesions were observed on the lips, muzzles, mucocutaneous junctions, nostrils, ear, inner aspect of thigh and gums. The hematological parameters revealed erythrocytopenia, anemia, leukocytosis, neutrophilia and lymphopenia. For molecular confirmation, DNA extraction of all scab samples collected from suspected goats and showed amplification of partial B2L gene at 592 bp by PCR. Analysis of DNA sequence revealed that three Parbhani sequences were positive for CEV. The obtained 3 sequences of orf virus got accession numbers PP235095, PP235096 and PP235097 were closely related with each other and with other strains obtained from GenBank for the Parbhani district, Maharashtra and strains of other states of India mainly with Meghalaya, Assam and Goa.
Journal Article