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The thermal management and reduction of energy consumption in cooling systems have become major trends with the continued growth of high heat dissipation data centers and the challenging energy situation. However, the existing studies have been limited to studying the influences of individual factors on energy saving and thermal management and have not been systematically summarized. Thus, this paper reviews the key factors in achieving thermal management and reducing energy consumption in each cooling system, the corresponding research, and optimization methods. To achieve these goals, in this paper, literature surveys on data center cooling systems are investigated. For data center air cooling, thermal management is mainly related to the uniform distribution of hot and cold air. Adjusting the porosity of perforated tiles can reduce energy consumption. For liquid cooling and free cooling systems, climate conditions, cooling system structural design, coolant type, and flow rate are key factors in achieving thermal management and reducing energy consumption. This paper provides the power usage effectiveness (PUE) values of the cooling systems in some cases. A summary of the key factors can provide directions for research on thermal management and energy reduction, and a summary of previous research can provide a basis for future optimization.

Zuo, X.; Dong, M.; Gao, F., and Tian, S., 2020. The modeling of the electric heating and cooling system of the integrated energy system in the coastal area. In: Yang, Y.; Mi, C.; Zhao, L., and Lam, S. (eds.), Global Topics and New Trends in Coastal Research: Port, Coastal and Ocean Engineering. Journal of Coastal Research, Special Issue No. 103, pp. 1022–1029. Coconut Creek (Florida), ISSN 0749-0208. The accurate analysis of the coupling relationship of the electric heating and cooling system is the basis of its load calculation. Because the current method does not consider the analysis of the coupling relationship of the electric heating and cooling system in the design, the accuracy of the load calculation results is low. In order to solve this problem, the load modeling of the electric heating and cooling system of the comprehensive energy system in the coastal area is studied. Through the calculation of power network, natural gas network and comprehensive energy flow, the power flow value of electric heating and cooling system of comprehensive energy system is obtained. On this basis, according to the energy conversion efficiency of the equipment included in the energy hub and the distribution ratio of electric energy and gas, the coupling relationship of the electric heating and cooling system is obtained. According to the coupling relationship of the electric heating and cooling system, the load model of the electric heating and cooling system is constructed, and the optimal solution of the model is calculated by Grey Wolf algorithm to complete the modeling research of the electric heating and cooling system of the comprehensive energy system in the coastal area. The simulation results show that the model designed in this paper can obtain the accurate calculation results of the active power and reactive power of the electric heating and cooling system, and the calculation of the load of the electric heating and cooling system is time-consuming, accurate and reliable.

A new geometry of photovoltaic/thermal (PVT) system is introduced in this study, and the application of Al2O3/water nanofluid as the coolant on the electrical and thermal behavior of a solar system is experimentally evaluated. To intensify the thermal ability of the solar collector, a serpentine half‐pipe cooling system is designed and fabricated behind the solar panel for better cooling. The cells of the panel are assembly on a 3‐mm‐thick aluminum plate, and the Tedlar removes from the system to maximize the heat transfer in the cooling section. A special layer arrangement for the composite panel is used to minimize thermal resistance of the system. Different concentrations of nanofluid samples (0.05–0.5 wt.%) prepared. To increase the stability of prepared nanofluids, suitable surfactants are also used. Based on the obtained results, adding the nanoparticles to the pure water can remarkably raise the efficiency of the PVT apparatus. The best behavior of the solar collector is observed for 0.5 wt.% of nanofluid samples. 126.71% and 7.38% enhancement in terms of thermal and electrical efficiency can be gained by the application of nanofluid in the system compared with pure water, respectively. The best obtained value of the overall efficiency is around 93.73% for the studied system. The maximum temperature rise for water and nanofluid is around 5.5 and 9.1°C, respectively, which confirms the better cooling ability of PVT system by nanofluid compared with water. Layer arrangement of proposed model and overall efficiency of photovoltaic/thermal system versus flow rate and different concentrations of nanofluids.

Efficient cooling systems are critical for maximizing the electrical efficiency of Photovoltaic (PV) solar panels. However, conventional temperature probes often fail to capture the spatial variability in thermal patterns across panels, impeding accurate assessment of cooling system performance. Existing methods for quantifying cooling efficiency lack precision, hindering the optimization of PV system maintenance and renewable energy output. This research introduces a novel approach utilizing deep learning techniques to address these limitations. A U-Net architecture is employed to segment solar panels from background elements in thermal imaging videos, facilitating a comprehensive analysis of cooling system efficiency. Two predictive models—a 3-layer Feedforward Neural Network (FNN) and a proposed Convolutional Neural Network (CNN)—are developed and compared for estimating cooling percentages from individual images. The study aims to enhance the precision and reliability of heat mapping capabilities for non-invasive, vision-based monitoring of photovoltaic cooling dynamics. By leveraging deep regression techniques, the proposed CNN model demonstrates superior predictive capability compared to traditional methods, enabling accurate estimation of cooling efficiencies across diverse scenarios. Experimental evaluation illustrates the supremacy of the CNN model in predictive capability, yielding a mean square error (MSE) of just 0.001171821, as opposed to the FNN’s MSE of 0.016. Furthermore, the CNN demonstrates remarkable improvements in mean absolute error (MAE) and R-square, registering values of 1.2% and 0.95, respectively, whereas the FNN posts comparatively inferior numbers of 3.5% and 0.85. This research introduces labeled thermal imaging datasets and tailored deep learning architectures, accelerating advancements in renewable energy technology solutions. Moreover, the study provides insights into the practical implementation and cost-effectiveness of the proposed cooling efficiency monitoring system, highlighting hardware requirements, integration with existing infrastructure, and sensitivity analysis. The economic viability and scalability of the system are assessed through comprehensive cost-benefit analysis and scalability assessment, demonstrating significant potential for cost savings and revenue increases in large-scale PV installations. Furthermore, strategies for addressing limitations, enhancing predictive accuracy, and scaling to larger datasets are discussed, laying the groundwork for future research and industry collaboration in the field of photovoltaic thermal management optimization.

This research investigates the integration of solar energy with traditional cooling technologies using solar electric cooling systems. A holistic optimization process is introduced to enable the cost‐effective design of such technology. Two mixed‐integer linear programming (MILP) models are developed, one for a baseline conventional cooling system and the other for a solar electric cooling system. The MILP models determine the optimal system design and the hourly optimal quantities of electricity and cold water that should be produced and stored while satisfying the cooling demand. The models are tested and analyzed using real‐world data, and multiple sensitivity analyses are conducted. Finally, an economic comparison of solar thermal and solar electric cooling systems against a baseline conventional cooling system is performed to determine the most cost‐effective system. The findings indicate that the photovoltaic panels used in solar electric cooling cover 42% of the chiller demand for electricity. Moreover, the solar electric cooling system is found to be the most cost‐effective, achieving ~5.5% and 55% cost savings compared with conventional and solar thermal cooling systems, respectively. A sensitivity analysis shows that the efficiency of photovoltaic panels has the greatest impact on the annual cost of solar electric cooling systems—their annual cost only increases by 10% when the price of electricity increases by 20%, making solar electric the most economical system. Mathematical optimization of baseline and solar electric systems. Models determine optimal system components and hourly operational decisions. PV panels in solar electric systems cover 42% of the chiller electricity demand. Solar electric is 5.5% and 55% cheaper than baseline and solar thermal systems. Solar electric is the most economical system as electricity prices increase by 20%.

This work investigated the potential for waste heat recovery from a cement factory using thermoelectric generation (TEG) technology. Several TEGs were placed on a secondary coaxial shell separated from the kiln shell by an air gap. The performance of the system was tested and evaluated experimentally. Two cooling methods, active water and forced air, were considered. A forced closed-loop water cooling system with a heat exchanger was considered for the active-water cooling method. A heat exchanger was inserted before the water tank to improve cooling efficiency by reducing the inlet temperature of the cooling water tank, in contrast to forced-air cooling, in which a heatsink was used. The obtained results indicated that the closed-loop water-cooled system equipped with a radiator, i.e., active water, has the highest conversion efficiency. The maximum absorbed heat for the forced-air and active-water cooling systems were 265.03 and 262.95 W, respectively. The active-water cooling method improves the power of TEG by 4.4% in comparison with forced-air cooling, while the payback periods for the proposed active-water and forced-air cooling systems are approximately 16 and 9 months, respectively.

This study investigates the efficiency of a biogas-powered cooling system through the utilization of energy and exergy calculations. Biogas, which can be generated and stored in small-scale plants as needed, serves as a viable fuel source for absorption cooling systems. The present research focuses on the biogas consumption of a triple-effect absorption cooling system specifically designed to supply a fixed cooling load of 100 kW under varying operational conditions. This study highlights the coefficient of performance and exergetic coefficient of performance values of the system, along with the exergy destruction rates of its individual components, at the optimal temperatures of operation. Furthermore, to determine necessary biogas consumption, this study explores the establishment of dedicated farms for various animal species, ensuring an adequate number of animals for biogas production. The findings reveal a coefficient of performance of 1.78 and an exergetic coefficient of performance of 35.4% at the optimized operating temperatures. The minimum mass flow rate of biogas is determined to be 0.0034 kgs−1, facilitating the operation of the boiler with a methane content of 65%. This study concludes that a total of 290 head of cattle is required to generate the annual biogas consumption necessary for the cooling system. Additionally, the number of the cattle is enough to establish 284 biogas plants in Bursa Province in Türkiye.

A composite phase change material (PCM) was prepared by incorporating paraffin (PA) with expanded graphite (EG) and nano-metal particles to improve the thermal conductivity and reduce the leakage performance of PA once it melts and, consequently, develop a more efficient PCM for a personal phase change cooling system. A series of experiments was carried out by a scanning electron microscope, a differential scanning calorimeter, a hot-disk thermal analyzer, and leakage tests on the composite PCM with various mass fractions of EG and metals (i.e., Cu, Al, Ni, and Fe). Through comprehensive consideration of the thermal conductivity, leakage, and homogeneity, a composite PCM with the optimal proportion (PA-EG11%-Cu1.9%) was screened out. Its thermal conductivity was significantly improved nine times, while the phase change enthalpy showed a minimal decrease. In addition, the relationships of the composite PCM with its temperature and density were systematically investigated. The experimental results are important for determining the proper package density of PCM for application into a personal cooling system because its weight is crucial for the system design and benefits the performance comparison of various PCMs prepared under various conditions. Lastly, the heat storage efficiency of the PA–EG–Cu material was investigated using heat storage tests. Cooling performance clearly improved compared to the PCM without nano-particles added.

Conformal cooling channels (CCCs) are a cooling passageway which follows the profile of the mold cavity or core to perform uniform cooling process effectively in the injection molding process. The production cost is closely related to productivity. To further improve productivity, the injection mold was equipped with CCCs to shorten the cooling time of the injection molded part. To investigate the relationship between the cooling channel layout and cooling efficiency of the CCCs, silicone rubber molds (SRMs) with different layouts of cooling systems were designed and constructed in this study. Simulation software was utilized to study the cooling performance. To verify the results of the simulation, SRM with different cooling systems were fabricated for low-pressure wax injection molding. It was found that the cooling time of the injection molded part is indeed affected by the total surface area of the heat exchange between the coolant and the SRM. The cooling system with four inlets and four outlets seems to be the optimum layout of the SRM in the case study in terms of the difficulty of mold making, total surface area of the heat exchange between the coolant and the SRM, and total cooling flow length of each segment. The saving in the cooling time about 2796 s and improvement of cooling efficiency about 76% can be obtained when the SRM with four inlets and four outlets was used for injection molding. The findings in this study can be used as a reference to design CCCs of injection mold built with AM technology.

Anthropogenic heat flux is the heat generated by human activities in the urban canopy layer, which is considered the main contributor to the urban heat island (UHI). The UHI can in turn increase the use and energy consumption of air-conditioning systems. In this study, two effective methods for water-cooling air-conditioning systems in non-domestic areas, including the direct cooling system and central piped cooling towers (CPCTs), are physically based, parameterized, and implemented in a weather research and forecasting model at the city scale of Hong Kong. An extreme high temperature event (June 23-28, 2016) in the urban areas was examined, and we assessed the effects on the surface thermal environment, the interaction of sea-land breeze circulation and urban heat island circulation, boundary layer dynamics, and a possible reduction of energy consumption. The results showed that both water-cooled air-conditioning systems could reduce the 2 m air temperature by around 0.5 °C-0.8 °C during the daytime, and around 1.5 °C around 7:00-8:00 pm when the planetary boundary layer (PBL) height was confined to a few hundred meters. The CPCT contributed around 80%-90% latent heat flux and significantly increased the water vapor mixing ratio in the atmosphere by around 0.29 g kg−1 on average. The implementation of the two alternative air-conditioning systems could modify the heat and momentum of turbulence, which inhibited the evolution of the PBL height (a reduction of 100-150 m), reduced the vertical mixing, presented lower horizontal wind speed and buoyant production of turbulent kinetic energy, and reduced the strength of sea breeze and UHI circulation, which in turn affected the removal of air pollutants. Moreover, the two alternative air-conditioning systems could significantly reduce the energy consumption by around 30% during extreme high temperature events. The results of this study suggest potential UHI mitigation strategies and can be extended to other megacities to enable them to be more resilient to UHI effects.