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Defining the structural style of fold–thrust belts and understanding the controlling factors are necessary steps towards prediction of their long-term and short-term dynamics, including seismic hazard, and to assess their potential in terms of hydrocarbon exploration. While the thin-skinned structural style has long been a fashionable view for outer parts of orogens worldwide, a wealth of new geological and geophysical studies has pointed out that a description in terms of thick-skinned deformation is, in many cases, more appropriate. This paper aims at providing a review of what we know about basement-involved shortening in foreland fold–thrust belts on the basis of the examination of selected Cenozoic orogens. After describing how structural interpretations of fold–thrust belts have evolved through time, this paper addresses how and the extent to which basement tectonics influence their geometry and their kinematics, and emphasizes the key control exerted by lithosphere rheology, including structural and thermal inheritance, and local/regional boundary conditions on the occurrence of thick-skinned tectonics in the outer parts of orogens.

The major role played by pre-existing structures in the formation of vein-style mineral deposits is demonstrated with several examples. The control of a pre-existing decollement level on the formation of a crustal extension-related (collapse) gold deposit is first illustrated in the Quadrilátero Ferrífero from Brazil. Shear zone and decollement structures were also examined and shown to control veins formation by three distinct processes: (i) re-aperture and re-using of wrench shear zones in the case of Shila gold mines (south Peru); (ii) remobilisation of metal in volcanic-hosted massive sulphide (VHMS) deposit by subsequent tectonic events and formation of a secondary stockwork controlled by structures created during this event (Iberian Pyrite Belt, Spain); (iii) formation of economic stockwork by contrasting deformation behaviours between ductile black schist versus brittle more competent dolomite (Cu-Ifri deposit, Morocco). Two examples involve changing of rheological competence within zones affected by deformation and/or alteration in order to receive the mineralisation (case studies of Achmmach, Morocco, and Mina Soriana, Spain). The last case underscores the significance of the magmatic–hydrothermal transition in the formation of mesothermal gold deposits (Bruès mine, Spain). All these examples clearly demonstrate the crucial role played by previously formed structures and/or texture in the development and formation of ore deposits.

The mafic-ultramafic complexes containing magmatic sulphides at the southern margins of the Central Asian Orogenic Belt have been recently proposed to result from an Early Permian mantle plume. However, in this study we show that the plume model cannot account for the observed geological characteristics of the Huangshan-Jingerquan mafic-ultramafic belt in the Northern Tianshan. Low K2O contents and positive correlation between TiO2 and (Fe2O3)T/MgO of the mafic-ultramafic complexes of this belt demonstrate a tholeiitic affinity. Enrichment of large ion lithophile elements and depletion of high field strength elements (in particular Nb and Ta) relative to mid-ocean ridge basalt indicate a subduction-modified mantle source. Lead isotope values and compositions of chromite indicate a significant contribution from the melting of asthenosphere. The absence of Late Carboniferous strata in the Huangshan-Jingerquan belt and Early Permian exhumation of blueschist and eclogite along the Aqikkuduk suture at the southern boundary of the belt indicate that an arc-continent collision occurred in the Late Carboniferous to Early Permian. We propose that the detachment of oceanic lithosphere from continental lithosphere during the collision induced asthenospheric upwelling, which resulted in melting of both the asthenosphere and the overlying metasomatized mantle wedge, and the formation of the mafic-ultramafic complexes with ages of 270-285 Ma along the Huangshan-Jingerquan belt.

The concept that lithosphere detachment or break-off has long been conceived as a viable mechanism to explain prominent geological phenomena in Earth's crust and the surface. One of the strengths of slab delamination mechanism is that it can account for the extensive magmatism in active orogenic belts due to the upwelling of the asthenosphere after the slab break-off. However, in the last 20 years, geodynamic simulations show that the inflow of the asthenosphere upon slab break-off is insufficient to cause significant melting of the overriding lithosphere adjacent to the slab window. The primary reasons include the occurrence of slab break-off at a location that is too deep to effectively heat the overriding lithospheric mantle. Another factor is the presence of a thin film of crustal material that is retained during the slab break- off, inhibiting a significant thermal perturbation within the lithosphere. In this work, we couple petrological-thermomechanical simulations with magmatic melting processes to examine the lithospheric melting and surface lithological expression associated with slab break-off. Our work shows that in the early Earth when the mantle temperature is relatively higher, shallow slab break-off can give rise to significant lithospheric melting during the development of slab break-off. Moreover, because the slab becomes weaker in the earlier hotter mantle, it may break-off prior to the stage of continental collision, thus the magmatism it induced may not give a direct constraint on the time of continental collision. Our study has implications for the interpretation of geological and tomography studies in orogenic belts. It also provides insights into reconciling conflicts between geodynamic and geological studies regarding slab break off-induced melting and magmatism.

Potwar Basin is one of the hydrocarbon prolific basins but pertains complex deformational style. Maximum production has been taken from Paleocene and Eocene carbonates but deeper reservoirs like Cambrian (Khewra sandstone) and Permian (Tobra formation) are also well producing. Geology of the Northern Potwar deformed zone (NPDZ) is mainly controlled by Pre-Cambrian salt, gently dipping basement and its warp. As we move towards south, salt thickness decreases near the axis of Soan syncline, north of Dhurnal structure. Eastern part of NPDZ is buried one while an emergent fold and thrust front (fault propagating fold) in the western part of NPDZ. Eastern NPDZ has duplex structure with initiation of roof thrust from the Murree Formation and sole thrust from Pre-Cambrian salt. The Southern Potwar platform zone (SPPZ) is less disturbed in comparison with NPDZ in which Pre-Cambrian salt acts as a decollement/lubricating surface over which the Cambrian to Pliocene sequence slides as a single thrust sheet. Due to the combined effect of thick overburden of ~3‒5 km and the decollement, folding and thrusting is significant in the Potwar Basin. In the eastern SPPZ, pop-up and fault propagating folds are prominent while in the western SPPZ, triangular zones, pop-up or detachment folds are significant.

Kinematic evolution of fold-thrust structures has been investigated by analogue models that include syntectonic sedimentation. Different decollement dips and basement thicknesses produced different wedge geometries and propagating characteristics. A model with one decollement level was characterized by a closely spaced thrust system during early stages of shortening as compared to the late stages. The frequency of fault nucleation was rapid during the early stages of deformation. Conversely, the frequency of fault nucleation was low and thrust spacing was significantly wider in a model with two decollement levels. Individual faults became locked at steep dips and deformation stepped forward as a new fault nucleated in-sequence in front of the older locked structure. Once the thrust system was established up to 27 % overall shortening, an overlying bed was introduced to simulate syntectonic deformation. Model sand wedge did not grow self similarly but rather its length and height increased episodically with deformation. Restoration of deformed models show that layer parallel shortening accommodated for approximately half of the total model shortening across the multilayers. Calculated error in apparent layer shortening from the restored layers revealed a direct relation with depth of the layers in the models. The experimental results are comparable to a natural example from the Northern Apennines fold-and-thrust belts.

Numerous studies have investigated the geodynamic history and lithological composition of the Proterozoic basement, Caledonian nappes, and Devonian extensional basins and shear zones onshore west Norway. However, the offshore continuation of these structures, into the northern North Sea, where they are suspected to have influenced the structural evolution of the North Sea rift, is largely unknown. Existing interpretations of the offshore continuation of Caledonian and Devonian structures are based on simple map-view correlations between changes in offshore fault patterns and pronounced onshore structures, without providing evidence for the presence, nature, and geometry of offshore, basement-hosted structures. By integrating three-dimensional (3-D) seismic, borehole, and onshore geological and petrophysical data, as well as two-dimensional (2-D) forward modeling of gravity and magnetic data, we reveal the structural architecture and composition of the crystalline basement on the Måløy Slope, offshore west Norway. Based on 3-D mapping of intrabasement reflection patterns, we identified three basement units that can be correlated with the Caledonian thrust belt, and the major Devonian Nordfjord-Sogn detachment zone, located only 60 km to the east, onshore mainland Norway. Similar to that observed onshore, offshore crystalline basement of the Proterozoic basement (Western Gneiss Region) and allochthons is folded into large-scale antiforms and synforms. These units are separated by the strongly corrugated Nordfjord-Sogn detachment zone. Our analyses show that different types of crystalline basement can be distinguished by their seismic reflection character, and density and magnetic properties. We speculate that the main causes of the observed intrabasement reflectivity are lithological heterogeneities and strain-induced structures such as shear and fracture zones. Our interpretation of the architecture of crystalline basement offshore west Norway has important implications for the location of the suture zone between Baltica and Laurentia.

The Triassic collision between the Yangtze and North China blocks resulted in the formation of ultrahigh-pressure metamorphic rocks along the Dabie-Sulu orogenic belt, the development of the Tan-Lu fault zone, and the establishment of a crustal-scale décollement within the Lower Yangtze foreland fold-thrust zone. The ductile fabrics exposed in the Zhangbaling-Feidong Complex of the southern Tan-Lu fault zone record the strain that accumulated during that collision. Herein, field observations and structural analysis of high-strain rocks (i.e. microstructures and quartz crystallographic preferred orientations) from the eastern Feidong Complex are combined with estimates of deformation P-T conditions to reveal that top-to-SSW subhorizontal, amphibolite-facies (600 and 700°C, 4.0-6.6 Kbar) ductile fabrics overprint the Paleo-Proterozoic Feidong Complex. U-Pb geochronology on zircon rims and syntectonic titanite indicates that the overprinting deformation occurred in the Middle Triassic (ca. 246-242 Ma). Reinterpretation of reflection seismic profiles across the Tan-Lu fault zone and Lower Yangtze foreland fold-and-thrust zone identifies a large, subhorizontal décollement beneath the sedimentary cover that appears to have influenced the formation of fold-thrust structures in the Lower Yangtze foreland. These new observations and geochronological results are consistent with a transpressional tectonic model wherein the Early-Middle Triassic northward indentation of the Yangtze block into the North China block drove deformation within the southern Tan-Lu fault zone.

Current models for Miocene backarc extension of the Aegean region generally suggest that stretching was accommodated mainly by NE-dipping low-angle normal faults with N to NE sense of shear. A crustal-scale low-angle normal fault system trending over a length of more than 200 km forms the North Cycladic detachment system, which records a NE-directed normal shear sense separating the Cycladic Blueschist unit in the footwall from the Upper Cycladic unit in the hanging wall. Based on new structural field data, we propose the existence of another large-scale low-angle normal fault system, the West Cycladic detachment system, which is exposed on Kea, Kythnos, and Serifos, strikes over a length of at least 100 km, and has a possible extension to the SE, where the existence of a South Cycladic detachment system has been recently postulated. The West Cycladic detachment system shares many similarities with the North Cycladic detachment system, with the notable exception that the structure dips toward the SW with top-to-the-SSW kinematics. New 40Ar/39Ar and U-Th/He thermochronological data suggest that the West Cycladic detachment system accommodated extension throughout the Miocene. Since both the North and the West Cycladic detachment systems were active until the late Miocene but exhibit opposing shear sense, we propose that a large part of the stretching of the Aegean crust was accommodated by these two bivergent crustal-scale detachment systems.

•Common findings were linear lacerations with severe hemorrhaging and decollement.•Bite marks on the neck/extremities, without severe hemorrhaging, were also common.•Bite marks are useful to estimate the size and number of offending bears.•The intestines had been removed from the inguinal area in some cases.•Injuries due to bear attacks are different from those caused by other animals. In recent years, the number of bear attacks has risen in Akita prefecture, Japan. Here, we present the injury patterns of seven fatal bear attacks, and discuss the implication of these findings. We included five cases of Asiatic black bear attacks and two cases of Ezo brown bear attacks. In all cases, the injuries, 2–5 parallel linear lacerations with severe hemorrhaging and decollement, were mainly located on the upper body. These injuries were thought to be fatal as, upon a first encounter, bears often stand and first attack the victim’s head and face using their claws. Four lacerations were located at the vertex of the trapezoid in all cases, without severe hemorrhaging on the neck, extremities, or around the antemortem injuries. These injuries were thought to be bite marks incurred by the bears’ four large canines, mainly occurring postmortem during the process of predation. These findings differed from those of fatal biting around the neck by other animals such as lions, mountain lions, or large-sized dogs. Further, laceration with avulsion of the skin was found in the inguinal region, without severe hemorrhaging. In some cases, the intestine had been removed from the inguinal injury for predation. In conclusion, the injuries of bear attacks are different from those caused by other animals, owing to the characteristics of bears. By investigating the injuries caused by fatal bear attacks, we can better understand the patterns of such injuries. Especially, the diameter between the canines is sometimes useful to estimate the size and the number of offending bears.