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Background: Control over automatic tendencies is often compromised in challenging situations when people fall back on automatic defensive reactions, such as freeze-fight-flight responses. Stress-induced lack of control over automatic defensive responses constitutes a problem endemic to high-risk professions, such as the police. Difficulties controlling automatic defensive responses may not only impair split-second decisions under threat, but also increase the risk for and persistence of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms. However, the significance of these automatic defensive responses in the development and maintenance of trauma-related symptoms remains unclear due to a shortage of large-scale prospective studies. Objective: The 'Police-in-Action' study is conducted to investigate the role of automatic defensive responses in the development and maintenance of PTSD symptomatology after trauma exposure. Methods: In this prospective study, 340 police recruits from the Dutch Police Academy are tested before (wave 1; pre-exposure) and after (wave 2; post-exposure) their first emergency aid experiences as police officers. The two waves of data assessment are separated by approximately 15 months. To control for unspecific time effects, a well-matched control group of civilians (n = 85) is also tested twice, approximately 15 months apart, but without being frequently exposed to potentially traumatic events. Main outcomes are associations between (changes in) behavioural, psychophysiological, endocrine and neural markers of automatic defensive responses and development of trauma-related symptoms after trauma exposure in police recruits. Discussion: This prospective study in a large group of primary responders enables us to distinguish predisposing from acquired neurobiological abnormalities in automatic defensive responses, associated with the development of trauma-related symptoms. Identifying neurobiological correlates of (vulnerability for) trauma-related psychopathology may greatly improve screening for individuals at risk for developing PTSD symptomatology and offer valuable targets for (early preventive) interventions for PTSD.

Pain has an inhibitory effect on the corticospinal excitability that has been interpreted as an evolutionary mechanism, directed to down-regulate cortical activity in order to facilitate rapid protective spinal reflexes. Here, we focused on the link between defensive mechanisms and motor system and we asked whether voluntary actions can modulate the corticospinal excitability during painful stimulations. To this aim, we manipulated the volition-related aspects of our paradigm by comparing conditions in which either the participant (self-generated action) or the experimenter (other-generated action) pressed the button to deliver painful high-intensity transcutaneous electric shocks to the right digit V. MEPs to TMS were recorded from the FDI and APB muscles of the stimulated hand. A compelling agent-dependent modulation of the corticospinal excitability was found, showing, in self-generated compared to other-generated actions, a significantly lower inhibitory effect, as measured by greater MEP amplitude. This finding suggests a top-down modulation of volitional actions on defensive mechanisms, promoting the view that predictive information from the motor system attenuates the responses to the foreseeable adverse events generated by one’s own actions as compared to unpredictable events generated by someone else’s actions.

413 I. 413 II. 414 III. 414 IV. 415 V. 416 VI. 417 VII. 417 417 References 417 SUMMARY: The distinctive ecology of root herbivores, the complexity and diversity of root–microbe interactions, and the physical nature of the soil matrix mean that plant responses to root herbivory extrapolate poorly from our understanding of responses to aboveground herbivores. For example, root attack induces different changes in phytohormones to those in damaged leaves, including a lower but more potent burst of jasmonates in several plant species. Root secondary metabolite responses also differ markedly, although patterns between roots and shoots are harder to discern. Root defences must therefore be investigated in their own ecophysiological and evolutionary context, specifically one which incorporates root microbial symbionts and antagonists, if we are to better understand the battle between plants and their hidden herbivores.

This study explores how paradoxical tensions between economic growth and environmental protection are avoided through organizational mythmaking. By examining the European oil and gas supermajors' \"CEO-speak\" about climate change, we show how mythmaking facilitates the disregarding, diverting, and/or displacing of sustainability tensions. In doing so, our findings further illustrate how certain defensive responses are employed: (1) regression, or retreating to the comforts of past familiarities, (2) fantasy, or escaping the harsh reality that fossil fuels and climate change are indeed irreconcilable, and (3) projecting, or shifting blame to external actors for failing to address climate change. By highlighting the discursive effects of enacting these responses, we illustrate how the European oil and gas supermajors self-determine their inability to substantively address the complexities of climate change. We thus argue that defensive responses are not merely a form of mismanagement as the paradox and corporate sustainability literature commonly suggests, but a strategic resource that poses serious ethical concerns given the imminent danger of issues such as climate change.

Defensive behaviors in animals and humans vary dynamically with increasing proximity of a threat and depending upon the behavioral repertoire at hand. The current study investigated physiological and behavioral adjustments and associated brain activation when participants were exposed to dynamically approaching threat that was either inevitable or could be avoided by motor action. When the approaching threat was inevitable, attentive freezing was observed as indicated by fear bradycardia, startle potentiation, and a dynamic increase in activation of the anterior insula and the periaqueductal grey. In preparation for active avoidance a switch in defensive behavior was observed characterized by startle inhibition and heart rate acceleration along with potentiated activation of the amygdala and the periaqueductal grey. Importantly, the modulation of defensive behavior according to threat imminence and the behavioral option at hand was associated with activity changes in the ventromedial prefrontal cortex. These findings improve our understanding of brain mechanisms guiding human behavior during approaching threat depending on available resources. •We examined brain dynamics and defensive response patterns during approaching threat that could either be avoided or not.•Inescapable threat was associated with attentive freezing behavior indicated by startle potentiation and fear bradycardia.•During escapable threat, defense behavior switched to active avoidance with startle inhibition and heart rate acceleration.•Approaching threat was associated with increasing anterior insula and periaqueductal grey activation.•The switch in defense behavior according to threat imminence and behavioral options was associated with vmPFC activity.

Agarwood is derived from wounds in Aquilaria trees and is widely used in traditional medicine, incense, and perfume. Sesquiterpenes are one of the main active components in agarwood and are known to be induced by wounding or injury; However, the molecular mechanisms by which wounding leads to sesquiterpene formation remain largely unknown. Agarwood sesquiterpene synthase 1 (ASS1) is one of key enzymes responsible for the biosynthesis of sesquiterpenes and is a crucial jasmonate (JA)-responsive wound-inducible synthase. However, it is not known why ASS1 is not expressed in healthy trees and how its expression is induced as a result of wounding. Here, we report that ASS1 is a wound-induced gene with a promoter in which a 242-bp region (−973 to −731bp) is identified as the core sequence for responding to wound signals. AsWRKY44 binds directly to this region and represses ASS1 promoter activity. Down-regulation or disruption of AsWRKY44 can relieve the inhibition and activate ASS1 expression. In addition, AsWRKY44 is degraded and the expression of ASS1 is significantly up-regulated in response to exogenous application of methyl jasmonate. Thus, AsWRKY44 is a crucial negative regulator of wound-induced ASS1 transcription, and is central to the mechanism of sesquiterpene biosynthesis in agarwood.

This study examines how the leading beverage company handles the strategic paradox between its core business and the social issue of obesity. A discursive analysis reveals how the organization does embrace a social goal related to obesity but not the paradoxical tension between this goal and its core business. The analysis further shows how the tension, along with the responsibility for the social goal, is projected outside the organization. This response is underpinned by the paradoxical constructions of consumers and the concept of obesity in the organization's communication. Based on these findings, I outline a new type of process for projection, one of the defensive mechanisms recognized in the literature. The findings increase our understanding of defensive responses to organizational paradoxes and help distinguish between different kinds of strategic paradoxes. They also highlight the need to further open up the complexity and multiplicity of strategic paradoxes related to corporate sustainability.

Social desirability (specifically, impression management) scales are widely used by researchers and practitioners to screen individuals who bias self-reports in a self-favoring manner. These scales also serve to identify individuals at risk for psychological and health problems. The present review explores the evidence with regard to the ability of these scales to achieve these objectives. In the first part of the review, I present six criteria to evaluate impression management scales and conclude that they are unsatisfactory as measures of response style. Next, I explore what individual differences in impression management scores actually do measure. I compare two approaches: a defensiveness approach, which argues that these scales measure defensiveness that stems from vulnerable self-esteem, and an adjustment approach, which suggests that impression management is associated with personal well-being and interpersonal adjustment. Data from a wide variety of fields including social behavior, affect and wellbeing, health, and job performance tend to favor the adjustment approach. Finally, I argue that scales measuring impression management should be redefined as measures of interpersonally oriented self-control that identify individuals who demonstrate high levels of self-control, especially in social contexts.

Prior laboratory research has suggested that humans may become more prosocial in stressful or threatening situations, but it is unknown whether the link between prosociality and defense generalizes to real-life. Here, we examined the association between defensive responses to a real-world threat (the COVID-19 pandemic) and everyday altruism. Four independent samples of 150 (N = 600) US residents were recruited online at 4 different timepoints, and self-report measures of perceived COVID-19 threat, defensive emotions (e.g., stress and anxiety), and everyday altruism were collected. Our operationalization of defensive emotions was inspired by the threat imminence framework, an ecological model of how humans and animals respond to varying levels of threat. We found that perceived COVID-19 threat was associated with higher levels of everyday altruism (assessed by the Self-report Altruism scale). Importantly, there was a robust association between experiencing acute anxiety and high physiological arousal during the pandemic (responses typically characteristic of higher perceived threat imminence), and propensity to engage in everyday altruism. Non-significant or negative associations were found with less acute defensive responses like stress. These findings support a real-life relation between defensive and altruistic motivation in humans, which may be modulated by perceived threat imminence.

Exploring host plant resistance and elevating plant defense mechanisms through the application of exogenous elicitors stands as a promising strategy for integrated pest management. The fall armyworm, a pernicious menace to grain crops in tropical and subtropical regions, stands as a formidable threat due to its capacity for devastation and a wide-ranging spectrum of host plants. There is no literature regarding artificially induced resistance in maize against fall armyworm ( Spodoptera frugiperda ) by exogenous application of phytohormones. The present investigation was performed to evaluate the role of jasmonic acid (JA) and salicylic acid (SA) on two maize hybrids namely FH-1046 and YH-1898 against fall armyworm. Results showed that plant height, biomass and lengths, fresh and dry weight of root shoot which decreased with armyworm infestation improved with phytohormonal application. JA treatment resulted in a higher increase in all attributes as compared to SA treatment. Improvement in relative water contents, photosynthetic pigments and pronounced levels of phenol and proline accumulation were observed in infested plants after JA treatment. Infested plants recovered from oxidative stress as JA application activated and increased the antioxidant enzyme activity of superoxide dismutase, peroxidase and polyphenol oxidase activity in both FH-1046 and YH-1898 . The oxidative stress reduction in infested plants after JA treatment was also evident from a fair decrease in MDA and H 2 O 2 in both varieties. The SA and JA mediated genes expression was studied and it was found that in FH1046 maize cultivar, JA dependent genes, particularly marker genes PR1 and Lox5 were highly expressed along with TPS10 and BBT12. Whereas SPI, WRKY28, ICS and PAL were shown to be activated upon SA application. Evidently, both JA and SA elicited a robust defensive response within the maize plants against the voracious S. frugiperda , which in consequence exerted a discernible influence over the pest's developmental trajectory and physiological dynamics. A decrease in detoxification enzyme activity of the insects was observed after feeding on treated plants. Moreover, it was recorded that the survival and weight gain of FAW feeding on phytohormone treated maize plants also decelerated. In conclusion, FH-1046 was found to be more tolerant than YH-1898 against fall armyworm infestation and 1 mM JA was more effective than 1 mM SA for alleviation of fall armyworm stress. Therefore, it was inferred that phytohormones regulated redox homeostasis to circumvent oxidative damage and mediate essential metabolic events in maize under stress. To our current understanding, this study is the very first presentation of induced resistance in maize against S. frugiperda with the phytohormonal application (JA and SA).