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1. Natal dispersal has the potential to affect most ecological and evolutionary processes. However, despite its importance, this complex ecological process still represents a significant gap in our understanding of animal ecology due to both the lack of empirical data and the intrinsic complexity of dispersal dynamics. 2. By studying natal dispersal of 74 radiotagged juvenile eagle owls Bubo bubo (Linnaeus), in both the wandering and the settlement phases, we empirically addressed the complex interactions by which individual phenotypic traits and external cues jointly shape individual heterogeneity through the different phases of dispersal, both at nightly and weekly temporal scales. 3. Owls in poorer physical conditions travelled shorter total distances during the wandering phase, describing straighter paths and moving slower, especially when crossing heterogeneous habitats. In general, the owls in worse condition started dispersal later and took longer times to find further settlement areas. Net distances were also sex biased, with females settling at further distances. Dispersing individuals did not seem to explore wandering and settlement areas by using a search image of their natal surroundings. Eagle owls showed a heterogeneous pattern of patch occupancy, where few patches were highly visited by different owls whereas the majority were visited by just one individual. During dispersal, the routes followed by owls were an intermediate solution between optimized and randomized ones. Finally, dispersal direction had a marked directionality, largely influenced by dominant winds. These results suggest an asymmetric and anisotropic dispersal pattern, where not only the number of patches but also their functions can affect population viability. 4. The combination of the information coming from the relationships among a large set of factors acting and integrating at different spatial and temporal scales, under the perspective of heterogeneous life histories, are a fruitful ground for future understanding of natal dispersal.

ContextNatal dispersal critically influences eco-evolutionary dynamics and the persistence of spatially structured populations. As both short- and long-distance movements contribute to population persistence in fragmented landscapes, understanding dispersal requires assessing phenotypic and environmental effects on a wide range of distances.ObjectivesTo assess phenotypic and environmental correlates of dispersal movements in fragmented landscapes.MethodsWe radio-tracked juvenile middle spotted woodpeckers in fragmented landscapes to assess phenotypic and environmental effects on emigration age, transfer duration (in days), and transfer distances.ResultsLarge fledglings and those in good condition emigrated earlier than smaller individuals and those in worse condition. Birds in better condition also reduced transfer duration. Overall, females dispersed earlier, remained shorter at transfer and moved further than males. However, while females increased transfer distances with increasing connectivity, males increased distances with decreasing connectivity. Emigration age increased with decreasing patch size and increasing patch quality, and with decreasing population density in patches with soft edges. Both transfer duration and distance increased with decreasing population density.ConclusionsThe correlations between phenotypic traits of fledglings and their posterior movements suggest that early-life conditions influenced dispersal through carry-over effects. Early emigration from low-quality and high-populated patches can be a behavioural mechanism to quickly escape adverse natal conditions, but population density effects were modulated by edge hardness. Finally, because reductions in connectivity led to similar transfer distances between sexes through a reduction in female distances, a lack of sex-biased dispersal can be a previously overlooked effect of habitat isolation that may alter eco-evolutionary dynamics.

Background: Flight performance and dispersal behaviour can differ between sexes, resulting in sex-biased dispersal. The primary sex ratio of populations may also explain dispersal bias between sexes, as this bias may evolve with the primary sex ratio to reduce intrasexual competition. Although dispersal bias between sexes is relevant to population dynamics, there are few studies on sex-biased dispersal in insects. We studied the flight performance and dispersal behaviour of seven saproxylic beetle species associated with tree hollows from a sex perspective. We also analysed the possible coevolution of flight performance with the primary sex ratio. Methods: Wing loading and wing aspect ratio were used as measures of the flight performance of species and sexes. Dispersal behaviour was explored by analysing the frequency of each sex in interception traps versus the primary sex ratio obtained by tree hollow emergence traps using contingency tables and posthoc standardized residuals. A more active flight behaviour was expected for the sex with higher capture frequency in the interception traps. To explore the causes of flight performance bias between sexes, we searched for possible correlations between wing loading or wing aspect ratio and primary sex ratio using Pearson’s correlation coefficient. Results: Wing loading and wing aspect ratio differed between species and sexes, with flight performance being higher in males than in females for four of the seven species analysed. Dispersal behaviour and flight performance matched in the case of Elater ferrugineus; males showed higher flight performance and were the most collected sex in the interception traps (more active flyers). In contrast, the higher flight activity of Cetonia carthami aurataeformis females was not correlated with a higher flight performance than that of males. Moreover, we found that a bias in the primary sex ratio towards females is often correlated with a decrease in female flight performance. Conclusions: We stress that flight performance and dispersal behaviour of sexes do not always go hand in hand. Moreover, the relationship between the sex ratio and flight performance bias between sexes is not driven by competition within the most abundant sex. The inclusion of a sex perspective in insect dispersal studies would be useful to detect dispersal bias between sexes and its causes and would allow for further analysis of its effects on population dynamics.

1. Many studies investigating fitness correlates of dispersal in vertebrates report dispersers to have lower fitness than philopatric individuals. However, if dispersers are more likely to produce dispersing young or are more likely to disperse again in the next year(s) than philopatric individuals, there is a risk that fitness estimates based on local adult survival and local recruitment will be underestimated for dispersers. 2. We review the available empirical evidence on parent-offspring resemblance and individual lifelong consistency in dispersal behaviour, and relate these studies to recent studies of fitness correlates of dispersal in vertebrates. 3. Of the 12 studies testing directly for parent-offspring resemblance in dispersal propensity, five report a significant resemblance. The average effect size (r) of parent-offspring resemblance in dispersal was 0·15 [95% confidence interval (CI) = 0·07-0·22], with no difference between the sexes (average weighted effect size of 0·12 (0·08-0·16) and 0·16 (0·11-0·20) for females and males, respectively). Only three studies report data on within-individual consistency in dispersal propensity, of which two suggest dispersers to be more likely to disperse again. 4. To assess the magnitude of fitness underestimation expected for dispersing individuals depending on the heritability of dispersal distance and study area size, we used a simulation approach. Even when study area size is 10 times the mean dispersal distance, local recruitment per breeding event may be underestimated by 4-10%, generating a potential difference of 4-60% in average lifetime production of recruits between dispersing and philopatric individuals, with larger differences in long-lived species. 5. Estimates of both fitness correlates of dispersal and parent-offspring resemblance or within-individual consistency in dispersal behaviour have been reported for 11 species. Although some comparisons suggest genuine differences in fitness components between philopatric and dispersing individuals, others, based on adult and juvenile survival, are open to the alternative explanation of biased fitness estimates. 6. We list three potential ways of reducing the risk of making wrong inferences on biased fitness estimates due to such non-random dispersal behaviour between dispersing and philopatric individuals: (a) diagnosing effects of non-random dispersal, (b) reducing the effects of spatially limited study area and (c) performing controlled experiments.

Like other pond-breeding amphibians, the natterjack toad (Bufo calamita) typically presents a patchy distribution. Because the species experiences high probabilities of local population extinction, its persistence within landscapes relies on both local and landscape-scale processes [dispersal allowing the (re)colonization of habitat patches]. However, the structure and composition of the matrix surrounding local populations can alter the dispersal rates between populations. As shown previously (Landscape Ecol 19:829-842, 2004), the locomotor performances of individuals at the dispersal stage depend on the nature of the component crossed: some landscape components offer high resistance to movement (high resistance or high viscosity components) whereas others allow high efficiency of movement (low resistance components). We now examine the ability of individuals to discriminate between landscape components and select low-resistance components. Our experimental study investigates the ways in which young natterjack toads choose from among landscape components common to southern Belgium. Toadlets (the dispersal stage) were experimentally confronted with boundaries between surrogates of sandy soils, roads, forests, agricultural fields and intensive pastures. Our results show: 1 the ability of toadlets to react to boundaries between landscape components, 2 differences in permeability among boundaries, and 3 our inability to predict correctly the permeability of the boundaries from the patch-specific resistance assessed previously. Toadlets showed a preference for bare environments and forests, whereas they avoided the use of agricultural environments. This pattern could not be explained in terms of patch-specific resistance only, and is discussed in terms of mortality risks and resource availability in the various landscape components, with particular attention to repercussions on conservation strategies.

ContextDispersal plays a key role in linking populations, habitat (re)-colonization, and species range expansion. As fragmentation and habitat loss are ubiquitous threats and can disrupt dispersal, landscape connectivity modeling has become a valuable tool in conservation planning.ObjectivesWe provide an overview of how current connectivity modeling has incorporated the different aspects of animal dispersal. We describe the most popular connectivity models and highlight their main assumptions related to dispersal, suggesting a series of questions that could clarify the advantages and disadvantages of using a particular approach.MethodsWe review the structure of the connectivity models based on least-cost analysis, circuit theory, and the individual-based dispersal models. We use some studies as case examples to discuss how important elements of animal dispersal were considered through models to predict movement routes.ResultsOngoing developments in connectivity modeling have made it possible to represent animal dispersal in a more realistic way by implementing key elements such as dispersal behaviors, mortality, and inter-individual variability. However, the potential to consider such elements and how this is done in connectivity modeling depends on the selected approach, since each model represents animal dispersal through a different perspective.ConclusionsWe recommend that the choice of a connectivity model should be made after considering the study objectives, the species dispersal mechanism, and the prior knowledge available about it. By understanding and incorporating dispersal behavior into connectivity modeling, we can improve our capacity to generate useful information aimed to construct more effective conservation strategies.

The role of behavioral ecology in improving wildlife conservation and management has been the subject of much recent debate. We sought to answer 2 foundational questions about the current use of behavioral knowledge in conservation: To what extent is behavioral knowledge used in wildlife conservation and management, and how does the use of animal behavior differ among conservation fields in both frequency and types of use? We searched the literature for intersections between key fields of animal behavior and conservation and created a systematic heat map (i.e., graphical representation of data where values are represented as colors) to visualize relative efforts. Some behaviors, such as dispersal and foraging, were commonly considered (mean [SE] of 1147.38 [353.11] and 439.44 [108.85] papers per cell, respectively). In contrast, other behaviors, such as learning, social, and antipredatory behaviors were rarely considered (mean [SE] of 33.88 [7.62], 44.81 [10.65], and 22.69 [6.37] papers per cell, respectively). In many cases, awareness of the importance of behavior did not translate into applicable management tools. Our results challenge previous suggestions that there is little association between the fields of behavioral ecology and conservation and reveals tremendous variation in the use of different behaviors in conservation. We recommend that researchers focus on examining underutilized intersections of behavior and conservation themes for which preliminary work shows a potential for improving conservation and management, translating behavioral theory into applicable and testable predictions, and creating systematic reviews to summarize the behavioral evidence within the behavior-conservation intersections for which many studies exist. El papel de la ecología conductual en el mejoramiento de la conservación y el manejo de la fauna ha sido sujeto recientemente a muchas discusiones. Buscamos responder dos preguntas fundamentales acerca del uso actual del conocimiento conductual en la conservación: ¿Hasta qué punto se utiliza el conocimiento conductual en la conservación y manejo de la fauna y cómo difiere el uso del comportamiento animal, tanto en frecuencia como en tipos de uso, entre las áreas de conservación? En la literatura buscamos intersecciones entre áreas clave de la conservación y el comportamiento animal y creamos un mapa sistemático de calor (es decir, una representación gráfica de los datos en la que los valores se representan con colores) para visualizar los esfuerzos relativos. Algunos comportamientos, como la dispersión y el forrajeo, se consideraron como comunes (media [SE] de 114.38 [353.11] y 439.44 [108.85] artículos por celda, respectivamente). En contraste, otros comportamientos como el aprendizaje y las conductas sociales y anti-depredadores se consideraron como raras (media [SE] de 33.88 [7.62], 44.81 [10.65] y 22.69 [6.37] artículos por celda, respectivamente). En muchos casos, la detección de la importancia del comportamiento no se tradujo en una herramienta aplicable de manejo. Nuestros resultados presentan un reto a las sugerencias previas de que existe poca asociación entre las áreas de la ecología conductual y la conservación y revelan una variación tremenda en el uso de diferentes comportamientos dentro de la conservación. Recomendamos que los investigadores se enfoquen en examinar intersecciones sub-utilizadas de temas de comportamiento y conservación para los que el trabajo preliminar muestre un potencial para mejorar la conservación y el manejo; traduzcan la teoría conductual a predicciones aplicables y evaluables; y creen revisiones sistemáticas para resumir la evidencia conductual dentro las intersecciones de comportamiento-conservación para las que existen muchos estudios.

Dispersal is one of the most fundamental components of ecology, and affects processes as diverse as population growth, metapopulation dynamics, gene flow and adaptation. Although the act of moving from one habitat to another entails major costs to the disperser, empirical and theoretical studies suggest that these costs can be reduced by having morphological, physiological or behavioural specializations for dispersal. A few recent studies on different systems showed that individuals exhibit personality-dependent dispersal, meaning that dispersal tendency is associated with boldness, sociability or aggressiveness. Indeed, in several species, dispersers not only develop behavioural differences at the onset of dispersal, but display these behavioural characteristics through their life cycle. While personality-dependent dispersal has been demonstrated in only a few species, we believe that it is a widespread phenomenon with important ecological consequences. Here, we review the evidence for behavioural differences between dispersers and residents, to what extent they constitute personalities. We also examine how a link between personality traits and dispersal behaviours can be produced and how personality-dependent dispersal affects the dynamics of metapopulations and biological invasions. Finally, we suggest future research directions for population biologists, behavioural ecologists and conservation biologists such as how the direction and the strength of the relationship between personality traits and dispersal vary with ecological contexts.

Ecological invasions, where non-native species spread to new areas, grow to high densities and have large, negative impacts on ecological communities, are a major worldwide problem. Recent studies suggest that one of the key mechanisms influencing invasion dynamics is personality-dependent dispersal: the tendency for dispersers to have a different personality type than the average from a source population. We examined this possibility in the invasive mosquitofish (Gambusia affinis). We measured individual tendencies to disperse in experimental streams and several personality traits: sociability, boldness, activity and exploration tendency before and three weeks after dispersal. We found that mosquitofish display consistent behavioural tendencies over time, and significant positive correlations between all personality traits. Most notably, sociability was an important indicator of dispersal distance, with more asocial individuals dispersing further, suggesting personality-biased dispersal on an invasion front. These results could have important ecological implications, as invasion by a biased subset of individuals is likely to have different ecological impacts than invasion by a random group of colonists.

Studies in terrestrial systems suggest that long-distance propagule dispersal is important for landscape pattern and dynamics, but largely inconsequential for local demography. By contrast, in marine systems, dispersal at regional scales may drive local dynamics, because many species may have large mean dispersal distances. To assess variation in marine dispersal scales, we estimated mean dispersal distances from genetic isolation-by-distance slopes. Estimates ranged widely, from a few meters to hundreds of kilometers. Dispersal differed among taxonomic groups (macroalgae, invertebrates, and fish) and among species in different functional groups (e.g., producers and herbivores). Differences in dispersal scale have important implications for marine community dynamics, reserve design, responses to large-scale perturbations, and evolution of interacting species. To place genetic estimates of marine dispersal in context, we compared them to other measures of dispersal in the ocean and to estimates of dispersal on land. Maximum scales of dispersal by sedentary marine species exceeded maximum estimates of terrestrial plant dispersal by at least one to two orders of magnitude. Direct and genetic estimates of terrestrial plant dispersal were comparable to estimates of marine plant dispersal. Rates of marine macroalgal range expansion, however, far exceeded spread rates of terrestrial plants. Terrestrial plant spread rates were more similar to those of short-dispersing marine organisms that lack secondary dispersal by drifting adults. Genetic estimates of dispersal by different functional groups suggest that herbivores typically disperse much farther than their plant resources both on land and in the sea, although the timing, frequency, and consequences of dispersal may differ in the two systems. Terrestrial herbivores have more flexible dispersal behavior than marine organisms that disperse each generation by planktonic transport of larvae. Our results validate some long-standing views about the greater dispersal potential of species in the ocean, but also highlight the extreme heterogeneity in dispersal scale among marine species. As a result, development of a community perspective on marine connectivity will require consideration of multiple dispersal mechanisms and scales.