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China is a vast nation comprised of hundreds of distinct ethnic communities, each with its own language, history, and culture. Today the government of China recognizes just 56 ethnic nationalities, or minzu, as groups entitled to representation. This controversial new book recounts the history of the most sweeping attempt to sort and categorize the nation's enormous population: the 1954 Ethnic Classification project (minzu shibie). Thomas S. Mullaney draws on recently declassified material and extensive oral histories to describe how the communist government, in power less than a decade, launched this process in ethnically diverse Yunnan. Mullaney shows how the government drew on Republican-era scholarship for conceptual and methodological inspiration as it developed a strategy for identifying minzu and how non-Party-member Chinese ethnologists produced a \"scientific\" survey that would become the basis for a policy on nationalities.

Herderian ideas on a nation’s soul and language have had a strong resonance in European national movements, including the Balkans. Not only have language developments been influenced by nationalism, but language politics has played a significant role in nationalist politics. Namely, the rise and fall of a common official Serbo-Croatian language has paralleled political aspirations and developments in the Balkans. The importance of language in nationalist movements has long been recognised. More recently, language rights have been taken up in international conflict management. Affirming linguistic identity is seen as enhancing the sense of group security and social stability. The OSCE envisages a ‘pluralist, multicultural model of societal organisation’, where rights protection supports ‘“integrating diversity”, that is the simultaneous maintenance of different identities and the promotion of social integration’ (Holt and Packer, 2001, p. 102).

This chapter contains sections titled: Some Cognitive Tools of Adolescents An Inventory of Adolescents' Learning Tools Conclusion

This chapter contains sections titled: French Neoclassicism Neoclassicism in England

Influence maximization (IM) aims to find a given number of “seed\" vertices that can effectively maximize the expected spread under a given diffusion model. Due to the NP-hardness of finding an optimal seed set, approximation algorithms are often used for IM. However, these algorithms require a large number of simulations to find good seed sets. In this work, we propose DiFuseR , a blazing-fast, high-quality IM algorithm that can run on multiple GPUs in a distributed setting. DiFuseR is designed to increase GPU utilization, reduce internode communication, and minimize overlapping data/computation among the nodes. Based on the experiments with various graphs, containing some of the largest networks available, and diffusion settings, the proposed approach is found to be 3.2 × and 12 × faster on average on a single GPU and 8 GPUs, respectively. It can achieve up to 8 × and 233.7 × speedup on the same hardware settings. Furthermore, thanks to its smart load-balancing mechanism, on 8 GPUs, it is on average 5.6 × faster compared to its single-GPU performance.

Zhiyan 智儼 (602–668) is considered the second patriarch of the Chinese Huayan 華嚴 (Jp. Kegon) school. Zhiyan gave his scholarly attention to the Dilun School 地論宗 and Shelun School 攝論宗. By his period, the reunification of the North and South had permitted the Dilun and Shelun lineages to begin to merge, and the texts on which they were based had a common origin in the Indian Yogācāra and Tathāgatagarbha. In this article, I focus on Zhiyan’s conceptual innovations and their background. My chief concerns are twofold: the first is to review several terms and teachings as representative examples of the creative practice of Zhiyan and the second is to identify his roots in the earlier traditions of Indian and Chinese Buddhism. I focus on the translation and understanding of the term zhenru 真如 (Skt. tathatā; suchness/thusness), which is a crucial expression used in descriptions of ultimate truth in Buddhism. By investigating the terms through the lens of the Ratnagotravibhāga (=RGV), I consider what tathatā, dhātu and gotra signified in their Indian usage and how these meanings evolved in the process of the appropriation of these concepts in China, especially in Zhiyan’s writings. Furthermore, through this analysis, I aim to explore Zhiyan’s attitude towards the Jiujing yisheng baoxing lun 究竟一乘寶性論 (=BXL), the Chinese translation of the RGV, and examine how he absorbed and utilized this significant treatise, which was compiled in India and translated in Northern China. We cannot find even one clear interpretation defining suchness as unconditioned dharma in the Dasheng qixin lun 大乘起信論 (=AF; Awakening of Mahāyāna Faith). In the AF, it is stated that suchness is initially pure. However, due to the fumigation of ignorance, the marks and features of defilement will appear on pure suchness. Suchness, being connected with foundation consciousness, has been regarded as the foundation or origin of conditioned arising in the She dasheng lun chao 攝大乘論抄 (T2806), a significant commentary on the She dasheng lun 攝大乘論 translated by Paramārtha 真諦 (499–569), who has been associated with the AF. Building on this trend in the interpretation of suchness, Zhiyan employs both the AF and the BXL to expound his theory of suchness. He initially utilizes the theory of suchness from the AF and the BXL to argue that all phenomena, including delusion, could arise from suchness. Zhiyan asserts the fumigation/perfume of suchness. The background of Zhiyan’s theory of suchness is based on the AF. However, while the AF only mentions the fumigation/perfume of suchness, Zhiyan adds that suchness does not inherently maintain its self-nature but arises conditionally. This marks a significant difference, or development, between the theory of suchness in the AF and that in Zhiyan’s Huayan doctrinal system. In my view, the answer lies in the BXL, which Zhiyan himself regards as a key text alongside the AF as the basis for his theory of suchness. Zhiyan finds an intimation of the precious truth in the commentaries of Huiguang 慧光, who was a disciple of Ratnamati, the translator of the BXL, and the founder of the southern branch of the Dilun School. Zhiyan finds the doctrine of infinite dependent arising according to the one vehicle of the distinct teaching (Ch. biejiao yisheng 別教一乘) in Huiguang’s commentaries. It indicates that the renderings and interpretations of Ratnamati and Huiguang seem to have deeply influenced Zhiyan. For a long time, many scholars have believed that the RGV had only a minimal impact on East Asian Buddhism, and few have pointed out its influence on Zhiyan. However, through the analysis in this article, I find that Zhiyan places significant importance on the RGV and its Chinese translation BXL.

This chapter contains sections titled: The Gunpowder Plot and the Popish Plot: Popular Politics in the Seventeenth Century Background The Gunpowder Plot Some Literary Implications of The Gunpowder Plot The Popish Plot and The Exclusion Crisis Notes

The boundaries between neurodevelopmental disorders are often indistinct, even among specialists. But do these boundaries exist, or do experts struggle to distinguish and categorize symptoms in order to arrive at a dominant diagnosis while comorbidity continually leaves questions about where each disorder ends and begins? What should be reconsidered? The introduction of the term ‘spectrum of neurodevelopmental disorders’ could pave the way for a re-appraisal of the clinical continuum of neurodevelopmental disorders. This study aims to highlight the problems that emerge in the field of the differential diagnosis of neurodevelopmental disorders and propose a renegotiation of the distinctiveness criteria.

The paper reviews the central components of the cognitive theory of propositions and explains both its empirical advantages for theories of language and mind and its foundational metaphysical and epistemological advantages over other theories. It then answers a leading objection to the theory, before closing by raising the issue of how questions, which are the contents of interrogative sentences, and directives, which are the contents of imperative sentences, are related to propositions.

The present study addresses language ostracism in intercultural communication, a phenomenon when someone speaks a language but some members of this language community don’t speak to him in this language. This phenomenon is illustrated by language behaviour towards visually distinct bilingual minorities in Taiwan. Visually distinct minorities in Taiwan reported that they had been spoken to in English by small children or people who did not believe and accept that they really understood Mandarin when they spoke it. They might be spoken to in English despite actually speaking good Mandarin. Taiwanese people behave this way because of two conditions existing in Taiwan: an English-speaking foreigner stereotype where people assume that every foreign-looking person speaks English, and English privilege in Taiwanese society which leads to people being treated better if they can speak English.