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Cold-climate cities remain poorly studied, yet their spontaneous flora is strongly shaped by severe winters and short growing seasons. Heilongjiang Province, the northernmost region of China, provides a valuable case study given its rapid urbanization. As an important component of urban biodiversity, the diversity distribution patterns of spontaneous plants and their underlying causes remain underexplored from multi-scale and multi-dimensional perspectives. Therefore, this study aimed to test how climatic subzones and habitat types jointly influence spontaneous plant diversity across urban landscapes in 14 cities of Heilongjiang Province. Based on vegetation surveys, we applied calculations of α- and β-diversity, along with hierarchical clustering, across climatic subzones, cities, and habitat types to elucidate the diversity patterns and their multi-scale driving mechanisms. The results showed the following: (1) A total of 778 spontaneous plant species were recorded, belonging to 98 families and 395 genera. Native plants accounted for 58.7%, and non-native plants accounted for 41.3% (including 77 invasive species). (2) Perennial herbs dominated overall (45.2%), consistent with winter filtering, whereas annual/biennial herbs were more common in warmer subzones such as II B2. (3) Forest gaps (FG) and shrub–grassland gaps (SG) supported the most diverse spontaneous plant communities, highlighting habitat heterogeneity. (4) Species richness peaked in subzone II B2 and was lowest in subzone I A1, while abandoned land (SA) and shrub–grassland gaps (SG) supported the richest communities. (5) β-diversity analyses indicated homogenization under extreme cold in subzone I A1 and greater turnover in warmer subzone II B2, reflecting contrasting climatic filters. The “light patches” in FG habitats and the “disturbance filtering” in LA habitats further shaped the differences in local communities. This study reveals the diversity distribution patterns and adaptation strategies of spontaneous plants in cold cities, emphasizing their integration into urban planning while addressing the dominance of invasive species.

More than 1.2 million distribution records were used to create species distribution models for 402 Palaearctic species of dragonflies and damselflies. On the basis of these diversity maps of total, lentic and lotic diversity for the whole of the Palaearctic (excluding China and the Himalayan region) are presented. These maps show a clear pattern of decreasing diversity longitudinally, with species numbers dropping in the eastern half of Europe and remaining low throughout a large part of Russia, then increasing again towards Russia’s Far East and Korea. There are clear differences in diversity patterns of lentic and lotic species, with lentic species being dominant in colder and more arid areas. Areas with a high diversity of species assessed as threatened on the IUCN red list are largely restricted to the Mediterranean, Southwest Asia, and Japan, with clear hotspots found in the Levant and the southern half of Japan. The diversity at species, generic, and family level is higher in the south of Japan than in areas at a similar latitude in the western Mediterranean. This is likely to be the result of the more humid climate of Japan resulting in a higher diversity of freshwater habitats and the stronger impact of the glacial periods in the Western Palaearctic in combination with the Sahara, preventing tropical African lineages dispersing northwards.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: Assessment of biodiversity is a key factor in understanding of function and ecosystem management. Nevertheless, an operating procedure for assessing biodiversity and spatial pattern has not been established yet. Therefore, this empirical study was conducted to explore the role of diversity of species in the spatial patterning of tow shrub herbaceous communities.  METHODS: First, the biodiversity analysis was performed by Past3 software to compare the relationship between the two communities. Secondly, the distance and quadrat indices were employed to explore the spatial relationship of dominant species with diversity. In this regard, 64 and 84 plant species recorded in two vegetation types were investigated. Distribution patterns were extracted by distance and quadrat indices and Ecological Methodology software. FINDINGS: The results showed that vegetation type 2 had more diversity and richness compared to vegetation type 1. Besides, the spatial distributions of dominant species (Astragalus gossipinus and Bromus tomentellus) in the two vegetation types were clumped and random with tendency to be clumped. The Scrophulariaceae, Malvaceae, Papaveraceae, and Euphorbiaceae families were not found in vegetation Type 1, and vegetation Type 2 had no species of the Boraginaceae, Rosaceae, Thumeliaceae, Capparidaceae, Oleaceae, Sistaceae, and Dispaceae families. The results showed significant differences in the number of Gaminae and Legominosea families between the two vegetation types.  CONCLUSION: It was concluded that in communities with a dominant cover of shrub, the distribution pattern was clumped, and quadrat indices were less efficient than distance indices. While, in high-diversity communities with a predominant cover of gross, spatial distribution was random and distance and quadrat indices were more convergent. ===COPYRIGHTS©2021 The author(s). This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY 4.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, as long as the original authors and source are cited. No permission is required from the authors or the publishers. ===

The growth of each individual in plant populations was simulated by a spatial competition model for five density levels and four different spatial distribution patterns of individuals, varying from highly clumped to regular. The simulation results were analysed using the diffusion model for evaluating the effects of density and distribution pattern on the size-structure dynamics in relation to the degree of competitive asymmetry. At low densities, changes in statistics of plant weight over time such as mean, coefficient of variation, skewness, and Box-Cox-transformed kurtosis differed greatly among spatial patterns, irrespective of the degree of competitive asymmetry. In completely symmetric competition, the spatial effect on size-structure dynamics remained relatively large irrespective of densities, although mean plant weight became similar among the spatial patterns with increasing density. However, the spatial effect diminished with increased density in strongly asymmetric competition, when similar size distributions were realized irrespective of the spatial patterns. Therefore, it was concluded that: (1) irrespective of the degree of competitive asymmetry, spatial pattern is important for size-structure dynamics at low densities; (2) spatial pattern is nearly immaterial under strongly asymmetric competition at high densities; and (3) under crowded conditions, neighbourhood effects are much more apparent at the population level in less asymmetric competition. These processes and outcomes are linked to the forms of the functions of mean growth rate of individuals [G(t,x) function] and variance in growth rate [D(t,x) function]. These functions are variable depending on the spatial pattern under symmetric competition, but are rather stable under strongly asymmetric competition at high densities irrespective of the spatial patterns. Therefore, size structure under strongly asymmetric competition can be regarded as a stable system, whereas that under symmetric competition is regarded as a variable system in relation to the spatial pattern and process. From this, it was inferred that: (1) the goodness-of-fit of spatial competition models for crowded plant populations is higher in less asymmetric competition; and (2) higher species diversity in plant communities is associated with the lower degree of competitive asymmetry.

Aim: The knowledge of biodiversity facets such as species composition, distribution and ecological niche is fundamental for the construction of biogeographic hypotheses and conservation strategies. However, the knowledge on these facets is affected by major shortfalls, which are even more pronounced in the tropics. This study aims to evaluate the effect of sampling bias and variation in collection effort on Linnean, Wallacean and Hutchinsonian shortfalls and diversity measures as species richness, endemism and beta-diversity. Location: Brazil. Methods: We have built a database with over 1.5 million records of arthropods, vertebrates and angiosperms of Brazil, based on specimens deposited in scientific collections and on the taxonomic literature. We used null models to test the collection bias regarding the proximity to access routes. We also tested the influence of sampling effort on diversity measures by regression models. To investigate the Wallacean shortfall, we modelled the geographic distribution of over 4000 species and compared their observed distribution with models. To quantify the Hutchinsonian shortfall, we used environmental Euclidean distance of the records to identify regions with poorly sampled environmental conditions. To estimate the Linnean shortfall, we measured the similarity of species composition between regions close to and far from access routes. Results: We demonstrated that despite the differences in sampling effort, the strong collection bias affects all taxonomic groups equally, generating a pattern of spatially biased sampling effort. This collection pattern contributes greatly to the biodiversity knowledge shortfalls, which directly affects the knowledge on the distribution patterns of diversity. Main conclusions: The knowledge on species richness, species composition and endemism in the Brazilian biodiversity is strongly biased spatially. Despite differences in sampling effort for each taxonomic group, roadside bias affected them equally. Species composition similarity decreased with the distance from access routes, suggesting collection surveys at sites far from roads could increase the probability of sampling new geographic records or new species.

Despite their extent and socio-ecological importance, a comprehensive biogeographical synthesis of drylands is lacking. Here we synthesize the biogeography of key organisms (vascular and non-vascular vegetation and soil microorganisms), attributes (functional traits, spatial patterns, plant-plant and plant-soil interactions) and processes (productivity and land cover) across global drylands. These areas have a long evolutionary history, are centers of diversification for many plant lineages and include important plant diversity hotspots. This diversity captures a strikingly high portion of the variation in leaf functional diversity observed globally. Part of this functional diversity is associated with the large variation in response and effect traits in the shrubs encroaching dryland grasslands. Aridity and its interplay with the traits of interacting plant species largely shapes biogeographical patterns in plant-plant and plant-soil interactions, and in plant spatial patterns. Aridity also drives the composition of biocrust communities and vegetation productivity, which shows large geographical variation. We finish our review discussing major research gaps, which include: i) studying regular vegetation spatial patterns, ii) establishing large-scale plant and biocrust field surveys assessing individual-level trait measurements, iii) knowing whether plant-plant and plant-soil interactions impacts on biodiversity are predictable and iv) assessing how elevated CO2 modulates future aridity conditions and plant productivity.

Mountains are key features of the Earth’s surface and host a substantial proportion of the world’s species. However, the links between the evolution and distribution of biodiversity and the formation of mountains remain poorly understood. Here, we integrate multiple datasets to assess the relationships between species richness in mountains, geology and climate at global and regional scales. Specifically, we analyse how erosion, relief, soil and climate relate to the geographical distribution of terrestrial tetrapods, which include amphibians, birds and mammals. We find that centres of species richness correlate with areas of high temperatures, annual rainfall and topographic relief, supporting previous studies. We unveil additional links between mountain-building processes and biodiversity: species richness correlates with erosion rates and heterogeneity of soil types, with a varying response across continents. These additional links are prominent but under-explored, and probably relate to the interplay between surface uplift, climate change and atmospheric circulation through time. They are also influenced by the location and orientation of mountain ranges in relation to air circulation patterns, and how species diversification, dispersal and refugia respond to climate change. A better understanding of biosphere–lithosphere interactions is needed to understand the patterns and evolution of mountain biodiversity across space and time.

Exploring the mechanisms that influence large-scale species richness patterns is a fundamental question in the fields of ecology and biogeography. Pinus , the largest coniferous tree genus, has a long evolutionary history. However, there is still a lack of clarity regarding how complex environmental conditions and human factors interact to affect the distribution pattern of Pinus species richness. This study integrated 3406 distribution records of 30 taxa of Pinus species in China, to explore the species richness distribution pattern and identify diversity hotspots. Structural equation models were utilized to incorporate multiple drivers, including climate, soil conditions, and human impacts to explore the drivers of species richness patterns. The results demonstrate that Pinus species richness is notably high in middle to low latitudes. Furthermore, the latitudinal distribution width of these species confirms to Rapoport’s law. In addition, historical climate change was the strongest driver of Pinus species richness patterns, while habitat heterogeneity and soil texture had the greatest impact on richness patterns of wide-ranged and narrow-ranged species, respectively. Our study also identified the Yunnan-Guizhou Plateau and the Hengduan Mountains in Southwest China as the centers for Pinus species richness. Over 50% of Pinus species are located in highly disturbed regions, with 23.33% of hotspot grids located outside existing nature reserves. These areas are currently experiencing strong human activity pressures and significant future climate change threats. The findings emphasize the urgent need to strengthen the protection and restoration efforts in ecological hotspots for Pinus species to prevent substantial biodiversity losses in the future.

Aim This study aimed to investigate the distribution patterns of plant diversity in Kenya, how climatic fluctuations and orogeny shaped them, and the formation of its β‐diversity. Location Kenya, East Africa. Taxon Angiosperms. Methods We quantified patterns of turnover and nestedness components of phylogenetic β‐diversity for angiosperm species among neighbouring sites using a well‐resolved phylogenetic tree and extensive distribution records from public databases and other published sources. We applied clustering methods to delineate biota based on pairwise similarities among multiple sites and used a random assembly null model to assess the effects of species abundance distribution on phylogenetic β‐diversity. Results The phylogenetic turnover of the Kenyan flora, intersecting with the biodiversity hotspots Eastern Afromontane, Coastal Forests of Eastern Africa, and Horn of Africa, shows a non‐monotonic pattern along a latitudinal gradient that is strongly structured into volcanic and coastal areas. The other areas are mainly dominated by phylogenetic nestedness, even in the eastern part of the equatorial region parallel to the volcanic area. Phylogenetic diversity and phylogenetic structure analyses explain the mechanism of the observed phylogenetic turnover and nestedness patterns. We identified five phytogeographical regions in Kenya: the Mandera, Turkana, Volcanic, Pan Coastal and West Highland Regions. Conclusions Variations in turnover gradient and coexistence are highly dependent on the regional biogeographical history resulting from climatic fluctuations and long‐lasting orogeny, which jointly shaped the biodiversity patterns of the Kenyan flora. The nestedness component dominated climatically unstable regions and is presumed to have been caused by heavy local species extinction and recolonization from the Volcanic Region. The high turnover component in climatically stable regions may have preserved old lineages and the prevalence of endemic species within narrow ranges.

Butterflies and plant species are widely used as model systems in biodiversity and conservation research. However, little is known about spatial patterns of butterfly diversity linked to plant communities across coastal dune ecotones. We explored the relation between butterfly and vegetation diversity in a Mediterranean protected dune system in Central Italy. We sampled butterfly and plant communities on shifting and fixed dunes and investigated their distribution patterns by diversity indexes and Species Abundance Diversity models (SADs). We also computed species beta-diversity and analyzed the relation between butterfly communities and vegetation by correlation analyses. Cross-taxon congruence in species richness, composition and abundance was assessed using Mantel correlation tests. Both butterfly and plant diversity were higher on the fixed dunes than on the shifting dunes. In both communities, SADs were adequately described by the geometric series model, which is typical of harsh environments with simple communities dominated by few species. Among both butterflies and plants, we identified species found only on either the shifting or the fixed dunes. Correlation between plant and butterfly diversity was higher for entomophilous plant species than for the more abundant anemophilous ones. Our results indicate that both plant and butterfly communities respond to the sea-inland environmental gradient, forming distinct communities with specialized taxa. Our findings also provide evidence of the importance of butterfly-plant relations for preserving biological diversity and ecosystem functioning in Mediterranean coastal areas.