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Waterbirds are key agents of passive dispersal for aquatic invertebrates, particularly through internal transport of their propagules. In this study, we assessed the potential dispersal of invertebrates through endozoochory by two Anatidae species, the mallard and the common shelduck, in Albufera de Valencia Natural Park. We aimed at comparing the hatching success of invertebrate propagules egested by both ducks, under two temperatures, simulating cold (15 °C) and warm (25 °C) conditions. We performed a controlled hatching experiment using faecal samples (30 per species) collected from the roosting areas of both ducks. A total of 34 invertebrate taxa hatched, including rotifers, cladocerans, copepods, ostracods, ciliates, and microturbellarians. Species richness and hatching rates were higher under warm conditions, and shelduck samples showed more diverse assemblages than mallards. Five of the detected taxa are considered invasive non-native to the region. Some of the rotifer and ostracod species found, as well as microturbellarians, represent first records of internal dispersal by waterbirds. Our findings suggest that temperature can influence hatching success and may shape the community composition of colonizing organisms through endozoochory. Moreover, Anatidae can be effective vectors for aquatic invertebrates, including non-native species, with potential implications for metacommunity dynamics and invasions in Mediterranean wetlands

The ability of lineages to disperse long distances over evolutionary timescales may be influenced by the gain or loss of traits adapted to enhance local, ecological dispersal. For example, some species in the southern conifer family Podocarpaceae have fleshy cones that encourage bird dispersal, but it is unknown how this trait has influenced the clade’s historical biogeography, or its importance compared with other predictors of dispersal such as the geographic distance between regions. We answer these questions quantitatively by using a dated phylogeny of 197 species of southern conifers (Podocarpaceae and their sister family Araucariaceae) to statistically compare standard, trait-independent biogeography models with new BioGeoBEARS models where an evolving trait can influence dispersal probability, and trait history, biogeographical history, and model parameters are jointly inferred. We validate the method with simulation-inference experiments. Comparing all models, those that include trait-dependent dispersal accrue 87.5% of the corrected Akaike Information Criterion (AICc) model weight. Averaged across all models, lineages with nonfleshy cones had a dispersal probability multiplier of 0.49 compared with lineages with fleshy cones. Distance is included as a predictor of dispersal in all credible models (100% model weight). However, models with changing geography earned only 22.0% of the model weight, and models submerging New Caledonia/New Zealand earned only 0.01%. The importance of traits and distance suggests that long-distance dispersal over macroevolutionary timespans should not be thought of as a highly unpredictable chance event. Instead, long-distance dispersal can be modeled, allowing statistical model comparison to quantify support for different hypotheses.

Fish have somehow colonized isolated water bodies all over the world without human assistance. It has long been speculated that these colonization events are assisted by waterbirds, transporting fish eggs attached to their feet and feathers, yet empirical support for this is lacking. Recently, it was suggested that endozoochory (i.e., internal transport within the gut) might play a more important role, but only highly resistant diapause eggs of killifish have been found to survive passage through waterbird guts. Here, we performed a controlled feeding experiment, where developing eggs of two cosmopolitan, invasive cyprinids (common carp, Prussian carp) were fed to captive mallards. Live embryos of both species were retrieved from fresh feces and survived beyond hatching. Our study identifies an overlooked dispersal mechanism in fish, providing evidence for bird-mediated dispersal ability of soft-membraned eggs undergoing active development. Only 0.2% of ingested eggs survived gut passage, yet, given the abundance, diet, and movements of ducks in nature, our results have major implications for biodiversity conservation and invasion dynamics in freshwater ecosystems.

Consistent individual tendencies in behaviour, or behavioural types, are likely to impact the dynamics and outcomes of animal‐mediated seed dispersal. We review the extant literature on this issue and outline a conceptual overview to guide this emerging field. We provide an overview of possible ways in which behavioural types can affect animal‐mediated seed dispersal. We summarize theoretical mechanisms linking behavioural types with seed dispersal outcomes and review how behavioural types might affect each stage of seed dispersal, beginning with fruit encounter and harvest, and ending with events that take place after seed deposition. Since behavioural types involve correlations among different behaviours (i.e. behavioural syndromes), they can generate unexpected associations between different decisions that are involved in seed dispersal, with conflicting (or reinforcing) effects on different stages of seed dispersal. Thus, we draw particular attention to trade‐offs faced by seeds dispersed by individuals with different behavioural tendencies. We also note that since seed dispersal is a multiplicative process with different stages, disperser behavioural types that provide moderately efficient dispersal at each stage will be better for plants than behavioural types that are very efficient at some steps, but inefficient on others. Finally, we provide testable predictions on the links between behavioural types and characteristics of seed dispersal, including, for example, influences on the probability of seed harvest, dispersal distance, deposition sites and condition of dispersed seeds. We argue that investigating the links between behavioural types and animal‐mediated seed dispersal will provide a better mechanistic understanding of seed dispersal and plant regeneration. A free plain language summary can be found within the Supporting Information of this article. A free Plain Language Summary can be found within the Supporting Information of this article

Urbanisation influences various aspects of species interactions, including animal-mediated endozoochorous seed dispersal – an essential mechanism that facilitates plant dispersal and establishment in urban environments. However, in-depth and systematic assessments of how urbanisation shape endozoochory interactions remain limited. To address this knowledge gap, we reviewed studies on endozoochory in urban ecosystems and examined the effects of urbanisation on endozoochorous seed dispersal. We also assessed whether urban endozoochorous networks exhibit high evenness and nestedness. Additionally, we analyzed trends in the abundance of the resulting plant functional diversity in urban ecosystems. Our review identified 34 studies on endozoochory in urban ecosystems across 17 countries, documenting 429 interactions involving 69 animal and 212 plant species. Most studies (26) focused on a single animal species as a seed disperser, while only two examined urbanisation rates. Furthermore, only 15 studies conducted germination tests on dispersed seeds, indicating limited attention to post-dispersal seed fate. We found substantial interaction evenness in urban endozoochory, alongside a reduction in the functional diversity of dispersed native plants compared to all dispersed plants, including non-native species. Among animal dispersers, only bats exhibited a positive response to urbanisation in terms of the number of plant species dispersed. Additionally, fleshy and dark-coloured fruits that often contain large seeds were positively correlated with urbanisation, suggesting that these traits may facilitate the dispersal of large-sized seeds in urban areas. Our findings highlight urbanisation as a key driver of endozoochorous interactions, emphasizing the need for future research to deepen our understanding of urban endozoochory and to enhance biodiversity conservation efforts.

Seed dispersal has been an indispensable ecosystem process mediated by biotic and abiotic vectors. Animal-mediated seed dispersal, such as endozoochory, has supported plants to sustain and establish in new locations. However, increasing urbanisation make feces deposition sites as a detrimental factor for the successful seed establishment. In this regard, this study explores the deposition of feces across the eight natural urban forest fragments with varying urbanisation rates in Tokyo-Yokohama, one of the largest urban agglomerations in the world. Paved roads within the forest fragments were surveyed for feces deposition and the urbanisation rate was estimated for all the studied sites. We found 1381 feces deposited on the paved roads, with the highest in ‘Sagamihara Chuo green space’ (n = 673) and the second highest in ‘Yokohama National University’ forest area (n = 488). This study revealed a strong influence of urbanisation on feces deposition in the forest fragments. Birds were the prominent group of animals that deposited feces on paved roads. This is the first study systematically showing the influence of urbanisation on transforming the seed dispersal service by animals into potential low services due to seed wastage in feces deposited on paved roads. Urban forest management needs to consider the impact of urbanisation on not just species diversity, but the interactions and services provided by species.

Following a disturbance, dispersal shapes community composition as well as ecosystem structure and function. For fungi, dispersal is often wind or mammal facilitated, but it is unclear whether these pathways are complementary or redundant in the taxa they disperse and the ecosystem functions they provide. Here, we compare the diversity and morphology of fungi dispersed by wind and three rodent species in recently harvested forests using a combination of microscopy and Illumina sequencing. We demonstrate that fungal communities dispersed by wind and small mammals differ in richness and composition. Most wind-dispersed fungi are wood saprotrophs, litter saprotrophs, and plant pathogens, whereas fungi dispersed in mammal scat are primarily mycorrhizal, soil saprotrophs, and unspecified saprotrophs. We note substantial dispersal of truffles and agaricoid mushrooms by small mammals, and dispersal of agaricoid mushrooms, crusts, and polypores by wind. In addition, we find mammal-dispersed spores are larger than wind-dispersed spores. Our findings suggest that wind- and small-mammal-facilitated dispersal are complementary processes and highlight the role of small mammals in dispersing mycorrhizal fungi, particularly following disturbances such as timber harvest.