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"evaporation"
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\"Carefully leveled text and vibrant photographs introduce early readers to the concept of opposites by encouraging them to compare things that are wet with things that are dry. Includes tools for teachers, a table of contents, words to know, and an index.\"-- Provided by publisher.
Book
Study on the parameters of DLC coating preparation process based on COMSOL
The process of preparing DLC coatings by vacuum evaporation was simulated using COMSOL software. The distance between the evaporation source and the substrate, as well as the temperature of the evaporation source, were changed, and the influence of these parameters on the quality of the coating was analyzed. The results of the simulation experiment indicate that the coating prepared by vacuum evaporation has the thickest center and thinner edges compared to the center. Appropriately increasing the distance between the evaporation source and the substrate material can improve the uniformity of the coating; Raising the temperature has a significant impact on accelerating the sedimentation rate.
Journal Article
Highly efficient three‐dimensional solar evaporator for zero liquid discharge desalination of high‐salinity brine
Solar‐driven interfacial evaporation is a promising technology for freshwater production from seawater, but salt accumulation on the evaporator surface hinders its performance and sustainability. In this study, we report a simple and green strategy to fabricate a three‐dimensional porous graphene spiral roll (3GSR) that enables highly efficient solar evaporation, salt collection, and water production from near‐saturated brine with zero liquid discharge (ZLD). The 3GSR design facilitates energy recovery, radial brine transport, and directional salt crystallization, thereby resulting in an ultrahigh evaporation rate of 9.05 kg m−2 h−1 in 25 wt% brine under 1‐sun illumination for 48 h continuously. Remarkably, the directional salt crystallization on its outer surface not only enlarges the evaporation area but also achieves an ultrahigh salt collection rate of 2.92 kg m−2 h−1, thus enabling ZLD desalination. Additionally, 3GSR exhibits a record‐high water production rate of 3.14 kg m−2 h−1 in an outdoor test. This innovative solution offers a highly efficient and continuous solar desalination method for water production and ZLD brine treatment, which has great implications for addressing global water scarcity and environmental issues arising from brine disposal. We report a novel three‐dimensional porous graphene spiral roll evaporator that enables zero liquid discharge evaporation from near‐saturated brine. This spiral roll structure facilitates energy recovery, radial brine transport, and directional salt crystallization, resulting in an outstanding average evaporation rate of 9.05 kg m−2 h−1, salt collection rate of 2.92 kg m−2 h−1, and water production rate of 3.14 kg m−2 h−1, which are the best performances reported so far.
Journal Article
Developing a General Daily Lake Evaporation Model and Demonstrating Its Application in the State of Texas
Open water evaporation, which often consumes a large fraction of annual storage (especially in arid and semi‐arid regions), is a controlling variable for modern water resource management. Developing a daily reservoir evaporation data set is necessary for reservoir operations to consider the influence of evaporation in a timely manner. However, over the past few decades, the quantification of reservoir evaporation has primarily relied on monthly Class A pan evaporation observations, which might lead to largely biased estimations because they do not incorporate the effects of heat storage and fetch. In this study, we developed a general Daily Lake Evaporation Model (DLEM) based on Penman's equation combined with daily atmospheric reanalysis data sets, to improve the validity and frequency of reservoir evaporation monitoring. Compared with daily evaporation estimates from eddy covariance systems, the DLEM showed good quality and reliability, with R2 values ranging from 0.50 to 0.73 and RMSE values ranging from 1.13 to 1.97 mm day−1 in four different sites. By applying DLEM to all 188 major reservoirs in Texas, we generated a long‐term data set of (1 January 1981–31 December 2021) daily evaporation rates. The results reveal a clear geographic distribution and strong seasonality of evaporation throughout Texas, where the mean evaporation rate is highest during July, with 6.85 mm day−1. Trend analysis indicates that the annual average evaporation rate has significantly increased since 1981 at a rate of 0.076 mm day−1 decade−1. This study provides sufficient data support for water resource operations and management, and regional water planning. Key Points A general Daily Lake Evaporation Model (DLEM) is developed on modified‐Penman evaporation and compared with in situ eddy covariance measurements A first long‐term (40+ years) regional scale daily reservoir evaporation data set is generated for 188 major reservoirs in Texas (US) While shortwave radiation affects the long‐term spatial distribution and trends, high wind speed is likely to cause daily extremes
Journal Article
A review of the complementary principle of evaporation: from the original linear relationship to generalized nonlinear functions
The complementary principle is an important methodology for estimating actual evaporation by using routinely observed meteorological variables. This review summaries its 56-year development, focusing on how related studies have shifted from adopting a symmetric linear complementary relationship (CR) to employing generalized nonlinear functions. The original CR denotes that the actual evaporation (E) and “apparent” potential evaporation (Epa) depart from the potential evaporation (Ep0) complementarily when the land surface dries from a completely wet environment with constant available energy. The CR was then extended to an asymmetric linear relationship, and the linear nature was retained through properly formulating Epa and/or Ep0. Recently, the linear CR was generalized to a sigmoid function and a polynomial function. The sigmoid function does not involve the formulations of Epa and Ep0 but uses the Penman (1948) potential evaporation and its radiation component as inputs, whereas the polynomial function inherits Ep0 and Epa as inputs and requires proper formulations for application. The generalized complementary principle has a more rigorous physical base and offers a great potential in advancing evaporation estimation. Future studies may cover several topics, including the boundary conditions in wet environments, the parameterization and application over different regions of the world, and integration with other approaches for further development.
Journal Article
Evaporative water loss of 1.42 million global lakes
The evaporative loss from global lakes (natural and artificial) is a critical component of the terrestrial water and energy balance. However, the evaporation volume of these water bodies—from the spatial distribution to the long-term trend—is as of yet unknown. Here, using satellite observations and modeling tools, we quantified the evaporation volume from 1.42 million global lakes from 1985 to 2018. We find that the long-term average lake evaporation is 1500 ± 150 km
3
year
−1
and it has increased at a rate of 3.12 km
3
year
−1
. The trend attributions include an increasing evaporation rate (58%), decreasing lake ice coverage (23%), and increasing lake surface area (19%). While only accounting for 5% of the global lake storage capacity, artificial lakes (i.e., reservoirs) contribute 16% to the evaporation volume. Our results underline the importance of using evaporation volume, rather than evaporation rate, as the primary index for assessing climatic impacts on lake systems.
While the evaporative water loss from global lakes is invisible, the volume is substantial. In recent decades, lake evaporation volume has been significantly increasing due to enhanced evaporation rate, melting lake ice, and expansion of water extent.
Journal Article
Polyaniline‐Coated MOFs Nanorod Arrays for Efficient Evaporation‐Driven Electricity Generation and Solar Steam Desalination
Though evaporation‐driven electricity generation has emerged as a novel eco‐friendly energy and attracted intense interests, it is typically demonstrated in pure water or a very low salt concentration. Integrating evaporation‐driven electricity generation and solar steam desalination simultaneously should be more promising. Herein, a polyaniline coated metal‐organic frameworks (MOFs) nanorod arrays membrane is synthesized which inherits the merits of both polyaniline and MOFs, demonstrating nice stability, good interfacial solar steam desalination, and evaporation‐driven electricity generation. Moreover, an integrated system based on this hybrid membrane achieves good interfacial solar‐heating evaporation and prominently enhanced evaporation‐driven electricity generation under one sun. Notably, the realization of effective seawater desalination and efficient evaporation‐driven electricity generation simultaneously by the non‐carbon‐based materials is reported for the first time, which provides a new alternative way for cogenerating both freshwater and electricity by harvesting energy from seawater and solar light. The integration of interfacial solar‐heating evaporation and evaporation‐driven electricity generation is achieved based on a rationally designed hybrid membrane with polyaniline coating on the metal‐organic frameworks’ nanorod arrays. This membrane demonstrates effective sea water desalination and efficient evaporation‐driven electricity generation simultaneously under solar light.
Journal Article
Evaluating Enhanced Reservoir Evaporation Losses From CMIP6‐Based Future Projections in the Contiguous United States
Enhanced reservoir evaporation has become an emerging concern regarding water loss, especially when compounded with the ever‐increasing water demand. In this study, we evaluated the evaporation rates and losses for 678 major reservoirs (representing nearly 90% of total storage capacity) in the Contiguous United States over historical baseline (1980–2019), near‐term (2020–2039), and mid‐term (2040–2059) future periods. The evaporation rate was estimated using the Lake Evaporation Model (LEM), an advanced lake evaporation model that addresses both heat storage and fetch effects, driven by multi‐ensemble downscaled Coupled Model Intercomparison Projects 6 (CMIP6) projections under the SSP585 emission scenario. The results project that the evaporation loss may increase by 2.5 × 107 m3/yr through the research period (1980–2059). Among all regions, the Rio Grande is projected to have the largest increasing rate in the near‐term and mid‐term future, with values of 7.11% of 10.25%, respectively. At the seasonal scale, the most significant increase in the evaporation rate is projected during the fall. The evaporation is projected to increase faster than the streamflow over many of the regions in the southwestern US during the summer/fall, suggesting that the shortage of water will be further exacerbated. The climate models contribute the most to the variance, as compared to the other components related to the projection of evaporation losses (e.g., hydrological model, downscaling method, and historical meteorological data set). These findings demonstrate the need to consider accelerated water loss through open water evaporation in long‐term water resources planning across various spatiotemporal scales. Plain Language Summary Evaporative water loss from reservoirs is unavoidable in arid/semi‐arid regions worldwide. The expected exacerbation of evaporation losses under climate change has become an emerging issue in water resource planning. We project the future evaporation rate and losses with Lake Evaporation Model under CMIP6‐based future climate and hydrological scenario. For 678 major reservoirs over the Contiguous United States, both evaporation rates and losses are projected to increase, with much more severe conditions during the mid‐term future (2040–2059) than in the near‐term future (2020–2039). Future exacerbation of evaporation will be much more substantial in the southwestern US, and is expected to be more severe in the fall. This research supports both short‐term extreme water event responses and long‐term water supply management strategies. Key Points Reservoir evaporation losses in the Contiguous United States are projected to increase by 2.5 × 107 m3/yr under the SSP585 emission scenario The increase of reservoir evaporation will further exacerbate the water shortage in the southwestern regions Compared to the other components related to the projection of the evaporation losses, the climate models contribute the most to the variance
Journal Article