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An increasing number of studies indicate that microbial diversity plays a crucial role in the mediation of ecosystem multifunctionality (EMF) in natural ecosystems. However, this point remains mostly overlooked in managed ecosystems, especially in agriculture. Here, we compiled promising strategies for the targeted exploitation of the associations between microbial diversity and EMF of agricultural soils using samples from two long‐term (more than 30 years) experimental field sites in southern China. The two sites experienced a similar monsoon climate and fertilization management practices. We used high‐throughput amplicon sequencing, structural equation modelling and random forest analysis, to analyse our data and validate our hypotheses. We found that soil physiochemical properties and the C‐, N‐, P‐ and S‐cycle enzyme activities were increased with the increase in microbial diversity. Specifically, a positive linear relationship was observed between microbial diversity and EMF, which was mediated by long‐term fertilization management via changes in soil microbial communities and physiochemical properties. Random forest analysis and SEM showed that the important role of microbial diversity on EMF was maintained even when simultaneously taking multiple multifunctionality drivers (soil physiochemical properties, soil aggregation and enzymatic patterns) into account. In addition, microbial diversity, C‐cycle enzyme activity and pH value are feasible predictors of EMF; these factors were shown to be the main drivers of EMF of arable soils. Our findings suggest that there may be a limited degree of multifunctional redundancy in arable soils. The relationship we observed between microbial diversity and EMF suggests that management practices that foster more diverse soil microbial communities may have the potential to improve the functioning of agroecosystems. A plain language summary is available for this article. Plain Language Summary

Lettuce, a vital economic crop, benefits significantly from intelligent advancements in its production, which are crucial for sustainable agriculture. Deep learning, a core technology in smart agriculture, has revolutionized the lettuce industry through powerful computer vision techniques like convolutional neural networks (CNNs) and YOLO-based models. This review systematically examines deep learning applications in lettuce production, including pest and disease diagnosis, precision spraying, pesticide residue detection, crop condition monitoring, growth stage classification, yield prediction, weed management, and irrigation and fertilization management. Notwithstanding its significant contributions, several critical challenges persist, including constrained model generalizability in dynamic settings, exorbitant computational requirements, and the paucity of meticulously annotated datasets. Addressing these challenges is essential for improving the efficiency, adaptability, and sustainability of deep learning-driven solutions in lettuce production. By enhancing resource efficiency, reducing chemical inputs, and optimizing cultivation practices, deep learning contributes to the broader goal of sustainable agriculture. This review explores research progress, optimization strategies, and future directions to strengthen deep learning’s role in fostering intelligent and sustainable lettuce farming.

Background and aimsInappropriate irrigation and nitrogen fertilization caused high global warming potential (GWP) while reduced carbon sequestration of farmland systems in arid regions. Understanding the effects of irrigation and nitrogen fertilization on net ecosystem carbon budget (NECB) and its components are crucial to mitigate GWP and increase carbon sequestration.MethodsA field experiment was carried out to investigate the impact of irrigation and nitrogen fertilization on soil greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, crop net primary productivity (NPP), NECB and net GWP from spring wheat farmland in arid Northwest China. Three irrigation depth levels, 180, 315, and 450 mm and three nitrogen fertilization levels, 170, 250, and 340 kg ha–1 were designed.ResultsIrrigation and fertilization significantly affected GHG emissions and carbon sequestration of farmland system. Reducing irrigation depth from 450 to 315 mm reduced soil CO2 and N2O emissions but did not significantly reduce NPP. Increasing nitrogen fertilization from 170 kg ha–1 to 250 kg ha–1 improved NPP, but continuously increasing nitrogen input decreased NPP while increasing soil CO2 and N2O emissions. Therefore, the NECB first increased and then decreased, while the net GWP first decreased and then increased as the irrigation depth and nitrogen fertilization decreased. Overall, the moderate irrigation and fertilization treatment (i.e., 315 mm irrigation and 250 kg ha–1 nitrogen fertilization) obtained the highest NECB and the lowest net GWP.ConclusionImproving irrigation and fertilization management can increase carbon sequestration and mitigate the net GWP of farmland systems by increasing crop NPP and reducing soil GHG emissions.

With recent increases in nitrogen (N) fertilizer prices, economic analysis of conventional and alternative N fertilizers has become critical for understanding the factors that drive total production costs and profits. Although fertilizer applications are meant to help reduce marketable yield variability in fresh-market vegetable production, climatic conditions on biomass production are difficult to predict. Still, they can be estimated for a specific physiographic region. A field fresh-market tomato study evaluated the suitability of a one-time preplant application of controlled-release urea (CRU) as an alternate N fertilizer source to the split application of fertigated soluble urea for tomato production using the raised-bed plasticulture system with drip irrigation in coastal plain soils. Marketable yield data from the four tomato production seasons (Fall 2019, Spring 2020, Fall 2020, and Spring 2021) reflected the N treatments that achieved the highest N use efficiencies (i.e., higher or sustained yields with a decrease in N input) from the tested N rates (125, 150, and 200 lb/acre), found that N application above 125 lb/acre did not lead to appreciable improvements in yield across all N sources tested [two CRUs with a 60 (CRU-60) and 75-day (CRU-75) duration and conventional urea]. Therefore, seasonal yields represent the effects of N sources applied up to a 38% reduction of the recommended N rate (200 lb/acre) for Florida tomato production. We conduct an economic analysis to evaluate the effects of the alternative N fertilizer strategies on the economic returns of commercial tomato production in north Florida. Both CRU formulations were roughly three times more expensive than conventional urea ( $62.0–$ 86.1 across seasons), which resulted in N fertilizer costs to total tomato production costs of ≈1.1% to 1.6% for CRUs and 0.4% to 0.6% for urea. Despite the higher costs, CRUs were shown to be profitable, especially in warm spring season tomato production. Marginal return rates for spring were 69.7% to 212.4%, showing that using CRU as the N source helped to almost or more than double the net income compared with using the same N rate of conventional urea. This analysis resulted in positive net incomes in the CRU fertilizer program ranging from$13,541 to $ 19,246 and$728 to $ 18,004 per acre for both fall (2019 and 2020) and spring (2020 and 2021) production seasons, respectively. On the other hand, the urea fertilizer program was not successful in Spring 2021.

Accurate nutrient diagnosis is essential for simulating alfalfa ( Medicago sativa L.) yield and optimizing resource-use efficiency under diverse soil nutrient conditions. However, limited knowledge exists about how fertilization impacts soil–plant nutrient stoichiometric constraints, especially in nutrient-deficient gray desert soils. This study conducted a field experiment with four nitrogen (N) application rates: 0, 60, 120, and 180 kg N∙ha −1 and four phosphorus (P) application rates: 0, 50, 100, and 150 kg P 2 O 5 ∙ha −1 . We assessed changes in the nutrient limitation characteristics of alfalfa and identified its primary driving factors, focusing on soil nutrient perspectives, nutrient distribution in main organs (leaves, shoots, and roots) and nutrient resorption. The results demonstrated that fertilization increased N and P concentrations in various alfalfa organs while reducing carbon (C) content. A strong synergy was observed in nutrient concentrations across the different alfalfa organs. With increasing application of single-nutrient fertilizers, the C:N and C:P ratios in alfalfa organs decreased, while the N:P ratio stabilized under conditions of sufficient or co-limiting soil N and P. Alfalfa N:P ratios under different fertilization treatments were 4.89–5.46 in roots, 6.19–8.45 in stems, and 9.10–15.16 in leaves. The C:N and C:P ratios were significantly negatively correlated with alfalfa yield, but the relationship between the N:P ratio and yield was not statistically significant. Soil nutrient status positively influenced N and P concentrations in leaves, stems, and roots, however, their effect on stoichiometric ratios was primarily mediated through indirect effects on corresponding organ-level nutrients. Moreover, soil nutrients directly or indirectly explained 98% of the variation in nutrient resorption in leaves. In conclusion, fertilization indirectly affects the stoichiometric characteristics of alfalfa organs via soil nutrients. Adjusting fertilizer nutrient ratios can mitigate nutrient limitations in both soil and alfalfa, providing valuable insights for fertilizer formulation, timing of fertilizer application, and fertilization application strategies. Highlights 1.Fertilization alters the C-N-P stoichiometry of the soil–plant system. 2.The stoichiometric characteristics and ratios of different organs exhibit a certain degree of synergy. 3.Stoichiometric ratios can represent nutrient limitation to a certain extent. 4.Soil nutrient changes affect the stoichiometric characteristics and ratios of alfalfa. Highlights 1. Fertilization alters the C-N-P stoichiometry of the soil-plant system. 2. The stoichiometric characteristics and ratios of different organs exhibit a certain degree of synergy. 3. Stoichiometric ratios can represent nutrient limitation to a certain extent. 4. Soil nutrient changes affect the stoichiometric characteristics and ratios of alfalfa. Graphical Abstract

Fungal phytopathogens are important threats to soil and crop health, but their community composition and environmental determinants remain unclear. We found that soil organic carbon is the key factor of the prevalence of fungal phytopathogens through a field survey, which is also supported by our long-term (6-year) experiment showing the applications of crop straw and fresh livestock manure significantly increased the proportion of fungal phytopathogens. Soil-borne fungal phytopathogens are important threats to soil and crop health. However, their community composition and environmental determinants remain unclear. Here, we explored the effects of agricultural fertilization regime (i.e., organic material application) on soil fungal phytopathogens, using data sets from a combination of field survey and long-term experiment. We found that soil organic carbon was the key factor that affected the diversity and relative abundance of fungal phytopathogens in agricultural soils. The dominant genera of phytopathogens including Monographella was also strongly associated with soil organic carbon. In addition, the elevated soil organic carbon enhanced the node proportion of phytopathogens and the positive interactions within the fungal community in the network. Results of the long-term experiment revealed that applications of crop straw and fresh livestock manure significantly increased the proportion of phytopathogens, which were associated with the elevated soil organic carbon. This work offers new insights into the occurrence and environmental factors of fungal phytopathogens in agricultural soils, which are fundamental to control their impacts on the soil and crop systems. IMPORTANCE Fungal phytopathogens are important threats to soil and crop health, but their community composition and environmental determinants remain unclear. We found that soil organic carbon is the key factor of the prevalence of fungal phytopathogens through a field survey, which is also supported by our long-term (6-year) experiment showing the applications of crop straw and fresh livestock manure significantly increased the proportion of fungal phytopathogens. These findings advance our understanding of the occurrence and environmental drivers of soil-borne fungal phytopathogens under agricultural fertilization regime and have important implications for the control of soil-borne pathogens.

Nitrogen is crucial for plant growth, but deficiency and excess can harm plants. Fertilizers like Diammonium Phosphate ( DAP), which releases ammonium (NH 4 + ), are common, yet over-application can cause NH 4 + toxicity, resulting in stunted roots and leaf damage. This study investigated the impact of NH 4 + toxicity on strawberry growth, yield, and fruit quality to inform better fertilization practices. The experiment was conducted at The Islamia University of Bahawalpur, Pakistan. Five treatments with varying DAP rates (0 g, 4 g, 7 g, 10 g, and 13 g per plant) were applied to strawberry plants in a completely randomized design with four replications. Photosynthetic pigments, hydrogen peroxide (H 2 O 2 ), malondialdehyde (MDA), electrolyte leakage (EL), and yield parameters were measured. The 4 g DAP treatment yielded the highest chlorophyll-a (0.5775 mg/g FW) and total chlorophyll content (0.705 mg/g FW). However, increasing DAP doses led to a decline in chlorophyll-a, chlorophyll-b, and total chlorophyll content, with the 13 g DAP treatment exhibiting the lowest levels. H 2 O 2 content increased with higher DAP doses, with the 13 g DAP treatment showing the highest value (75 µmol/g FW). Higher DAP doses also increased MDA content and EL, indicating oxidative stress and membrane damage. The 4 g DAP treatment showed minimal changes in H 2 O 2 and MDA content. Moderate DAP levels (4 g per plant) enhanced strawberry growth, yield, and photosynthetic activity, while higher doses caused significant stress, leading to reduced growth and yield. Managing NH 4 + levels in fertilization is crucial for optimizing strawberry production. Therefore, moderate doses of DAP (ammonium ion) should be used to avoid ammonium toxicity.

Camelina (Camelina sativa (L.) Crantz) is an underutilized oilseed crop proposed as low‐input feedstock for biofuel production, such as sustainable aviation fuel, under Mediterranean climate. However, its productivity is lower than that of more commonly used biofuel crops. Among agronomic techniques, sulfur fertilization is an underrated practice that can positively affect crop seed yield. This study evaluated the agronomic and environmental performance of camelina under different sulfur fertilization strategies, using industrial gypsum as a recycled S source. Field trials were conducted in central Italy over two consecutive growing seasons (2023–2024), evaluating five N–S combinations on spring‐sown camelina. Agronomic performance, seed quality, and Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) of camelina subjected to different fertilization strategies were evaluated. The combined application of 60 kg N ha−1 with 40 kg S ha−1 significantly increased seed (+39%) and straw (+33%) yields compared to N‐only fertilization. Sulfur improved the agronomic efficiency of nitrogen fertilization by 78%, without negatively affecting seed quality (glucosinolates, oil and protein content). LCA revealed that the use of sulfur fertilizers reduced camelina's environmental impact compared to the typical fertilization strategy. This is mainly due to the reduction in land required to produce 1 Mg of seeds and to the process associated with land management (primarily tillage and N fertilizers). However, modeling choices such as the inclusion of indirect land use change can significantly affect the output assessment. Overall, moderate S fertilization optimized both productivity and environmental impact, supporting camelina's role as a promising alternative to be introduced in Mediterranean traditional cropping systems. Camelina sativa, a low‐input oilseed for biofuel production, was evaluated under different sulfur fertilization strategies using recycled gypsum as a S‐source. Adding a moderate sulfur supply (40 kg ha−1) to regular nitrogen fertilization increased crop productivity and reduced environmental impacts, including emissions associated with iLUC, supporting camelina as a valuable option for Mediterranean agroecosystems.

Abstract Stone fruit crops are of great importance for the agriculture of a country. The method of comparative anatomy is successfully used to resolve controversial issues of taxonomy and phylogeny. Anatomical features, due to their relative conservatism, make it possible to more reasonably judge the relationship of certain taxa. The aim of the research is to study the anatomy structure of the dwarf and semi-dwarf cherry rootstocks stem in order to identify structural features and adaptive features of the rootstocks under study. Anatomical features are of great importance in the environmental characterization of plums and varieties of the main cultivated species. Based on the results obtained, the following features prevail in dwarf cherry rootstocks Gisella-5 and VSL-2 and Colt semi-dwarf cherry rootstocks: large stem diameter, extensive wood-bast complex libriform and core, the smallest vessels and parenchymal cells. This is important not only for the correct assessment of the adaptive potential of varieties and their distribution by zones, but also for understanding the process of modern species formation, the main directions of the evolutionary process, since the formation of species proceeded on the basis of their ecological differentiation. Resumo Culturas de frutas de caroço são de grande importância para a agricultura de um país. O método da anatomia comparada é utilizado com sucesso para resolver questões controversas de taxonomia e filogenia. As características anatômicas, devido ao seu relativo conservadorismo, permitem avaliar com maior fundamento a relação entre determinados táxons. O objetivo da pesquisa é estudar a estrutura anatômica dos caules de porta-enxertos de cerejeira-anã e semianã, a fim de identificar características estruturais e adaptativas dos porta-enxertos em estudo. As características anatômicas são de grande importância na caracterização ambiental de ameixeiras e variedades das principais espécies cultivadas. Com base nos resultados obtidos, prevalecem nos porta-enxertos de cerejeira-anã Gisella-5 e VSL-2 e nos porta-enxertos de cerejeira semianã Colt as seguintes características: grande diâmetro do caule, extenso complexo lenhoso-bastão libriforme e núcleo, menores vasos e células parenquimatosas. Essas informações são importantes não só para a correta avaliação do potencial adaptativo das variedades e sua distribuição por zonas agroecológicas, mas também para a compreensão do processo de formação de espécies modernas e das principais direções do processo evolutivo, uma vez que a formação de espécies ocorreu com base na sua diferenciação ecológica.

Estimating the precise nutritional status of crop nitrogen (N) after flowering period is not only important to predict deficiency but the excess that could be revised by fertilization in future crops. Critical N dilution curves describing the critical N concentration ([N] c ) in plant tissues during crop growth have been used to estimate the N status of whole plants in cotton. Little is known, however, about the critical N dilution curve for specific plant organs such as cotton fruits. The objective of this study was to verify the feasibility of fruits-based critical N dilution curve as a useful diagnostic tool for diagnosing the N status of cotton crops. A 3-year field experiment was conducted with seven N application rates (0–360 kg N ha –1 ) using the high-yielding cultivars Jimian 228 and Lumian 28, which differ in maturity. The relationship between fruits dry mass (DM) and N concentration ([N]) was analyzed, and a model of [N] c for cotton fruits was constructed and validated. The results showed that fruits [N] c decreased with increasing fruits DM. The critical N dilution curve based on cotton fruits was described by the equation [N] c = 2.49 × DM –0.12 ( R 2 = 0.649, P < 0.0001) across cultivar-years. The N nutrition index (NNI) of the fruits (NNI f ) with the N dilution curve was significantly related to the NNI of shoot DM, relative yield (RY), and boll density at most sampling dates. For an NNI f of approximately 1, the RY was nearly 95%, while it decreased with a decreasing NNI f below 1. The petiole nitrate-N (NO 3 -N) concentration was also linearly related to the NNI f , suggesting that the NO 3 -N concentration in the petiole was a good predictor of the NNI f . Therefore, fruits-based critical N dilution curve and the derived NNI f values will serve as a useful diagnostic tool for diagnosing N status in cotton crops.