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Oxygen and hydrogen generated by water electrolysis may be utilized as a clean chemical fuel with high gravimetric energy density and energy conversion efficiency. The hydrogen fuel will be the alternative to traditional fossil fuels in the future, which are near to exhaustion and cause pollution. In the present study, flowery-shaped In2MnSe4 nanoelectrocatalyst is fabricated by anion exchange reaction directly grown on nickel foam (NF) in 1.0 M KOH medium for oxygen evolution reaction (OER). The physiochemical and electrical characterization techniques are used to investigate the chemical structure, morphology, and electrical properties of the In2MnSe4 material. The electrochemical result indicates that synthesized material exhibits a smaller value of Tafel slope (86 mV/dec), lower overpotential (259 mV), and high stability for 37 h with small deterioration in the current density for a long time. Hence, the fabricated material responds with an extraordinary performance for the OER process and for many other applications in the future.

BackgroundThe hypothesis that pollinators have been important drivers of angiosperm diversity dates back to Darwin, and remains an important research topic today. Mounting evidence indicates that pollinators have the potential to drive diversification at several different stages of the evolutionary process. Microevolutionary studies have provided evidence for pollinator-mediated floral adaptation, while macroevolutionary evidence supports a general pattern of pollinator-driven diversification of angiosperms. However, the overarching issue of whether, and how, shifts in pollination system drive plant speciation represents a critical gap in knowledge. Bridging this gap is crucial to fully understand whether pollinator-driven microevolution accounts for the observed macroevolutionary patterns. Testable predictions about pollinator-driven speciation can be derived from the theory of ecological speciation, according to which adaptation (microevolution) and speciation (macroevolution) are directly linked. This theory is a particularly suitable framework for evaluating evidence for the processes underlying shifts in pollination systems and their potential consequences for the evolution of reproductive isolation and speciation.ScopeThis Viewpoint paper focuses on evidence for the four components of ecological speciation in the context of plant-pollinator interactions, namely (1) the role of pollinators as selective agents, (2) floral trait divergence, including the evolution of ‘pollination ecotypes‘, (3) the geographical context of selection on floral traits, and (4) the role of pollinators in the evolution of reproductive isolation. This Viewpoint also serves as the introduction to a Special Issue on Pollinator-Driven Speciation in Plants. The 13 papers in this Special Issue range from microevolutionary studies of ecotypes to macroevolutionary studies of historical ecological shifts, and span a wide range of geographical areas and plant families. These studies further illustrate innovative experimental approaches, and they employ modern tools in genetics and floral trait quantification. Future advances to the field require better quantification of selection through male fitness and pollinator isolation, for instance by exploiting next-generation sequencing technologies. By combining these new tools with strategically chosen study systems, and smart experimental design, we predict that examples of pollinator-driven speciation will be among the most widespread and compelling of all cases of ecological speciation.

• Flowers have been hypothesized to contain either modules of attraction and reproduction, functional modules (pollination-effecting parts) or developmental modules (organ-specific). Do pollination specialization and syndromes influence floral modularity? • In order to test these hypotheses and answer this question, we focused on the genus Erica: we gathered 3D data from flowers of 19 species with diverse syndromes via computed tomography, and for the first time tested the above-mentioned hypotheses via 3D geometric morphometrics. To provide an evolutionary framework for our results, we tested the evolutionary mode of floral shape, size and integration under the syndromes regime, and – for the first time – reconstructed the high-dimensional floral shape of their most recent common ancestor. • We demonstrate that the modularity of the 3D shape of generalist flowers depends on development and that of specialists is linked to function: modules of pollen deposition and receipt in bird syndrome, and access-restriction to the floral reward in long-proboscid fly syndrome. Only size and shape principal component 1 showed multiple-optima selection, suggesting that they were co-opted during evolution to adapt flowers to novel pollinators. Whole floral shape followed an Ornstein–Uhlenbeck (selection-driven) evolutionary model, and differentiated relatively late. • Flower shape modularity thus crucially depends on pollinator specialization and syndrome.

Background The Auxin Response Factor ( ARF ) gene family is ubiquitous in the plant kingdom, serving as a pivotal gene in the auxin signaling pathway. Members of this gene family encode transcription factors that regulate diverse aspects of plant growth and development. Notably, the Class IIa and Class IIb subfamilies within the ARF gene family play a vital role in plant flower development and morphogenesis. Chionanthus retusus , as significant ornamental plants in gardens, exhibit multiple flower forms, and changes in these forms have garnered substantial attention in the selection and cultivation of new varieties. Result In this study, we utilized the latest reference genome to conduct a comprehensive identification and analysis of the ARF gene in C. retusus (2n = 2x = 46), and examined its expression patterns in individuals with varying flower morphologies and generated transgenic Arabidopsis overexpressing CrARF37 and analyzed its function in flower morphogenesis. We identified 49 ARF genes in C. retusus , which can be categorized into four subfamilies and are distributed across 18 chromosomes. Genomic collinearity analysis demonstrated their conservation across evolution, and gene structure, domain, and motif analyses further confirmed their structural conservation. Ultimately, based on expression patterns in individuals exhibiting various flower morphologies, we identified CrARF32 , CrARF37 , and CrARF39 as potential contributors to the formation of C. retusus flower morphology. Subsequently, we generated CrARF37 -overexpressing transgenic Arabidopsis , and phenotypic analysis revealed significantly increased length and number of flower veins compared to controls. Conclusion Based on gene family analysis, transcriptome gene co-expression network, and transgenic functional validation, we identified three ARF genes that may be associated with differences in C. retutus flower morphology. In addition, we validated the transgenic function to elucidate how CrARF37 affects the development of floral vascular tissue.Our findings will enhance our understanding of flower morphological development and provide valuable theoretical insights for Osmanthus cultivation.

• Questions concerning the evolution of complex biological structures are central to the field of evolutionary biology. Yet, still little information is known about the modes and temporal dynamics of three-dimensional (3D) flower shape evolution across the history of clades. • Here, we combined high-resolution X-ray computed tomography with 3D geometric morphometrics and phylogenetic comparative methods to test models of whole-flower shape evolution in the orchid family, using an early Late Miocene clade (c. 50 spp.) of Malagasy Bulbophyllum as model system. • Based on landmark data of 38 species, our high-dimensional model fitting decisively rejects a purely neutral mode of evolution, suggesting instead that flower shapes evolved towards a primary adaptive optimum. Only a small number of recently evolved species/lineages attained alternative shape optima, resulting in an increased rate of phenotypic evolution. • Our findings provide evidence of constrained 3D flower shape evolution in a small-sized clade of tropical orchids, resulting in low rates of phenotypic evolution and uncoupled trait–diversification rates. We hypothesise that this deep imprint of evolutionary constraint on highly complex floral structures might reflect long-term (directional and/or stabilizing) selection exerted by the group’s main pollinators (flies).

Mechanical forces acting within the plant body that can mold flower shape throughout development received little attention. The palette of action of these forces ranges from mechanical pressures on organ primordia at the microscopic level up to the twisting of a peduncle that promotes resupination of a flower at the macroscopic level. Here, we argue that without these forces acting during the ontogenetic process, the actual flower phenotype would not be achieved as it is. In this review, we concentrate on mechanical forces that occur at the microscopic level and determine the fate of the flower shape by the physical constraints on meristems at an early stage of development. We thus highlight the generative role of mechanical forces over the floral phenotype and underline our general view of flower development as the sum of interactions of known physiological and genetic processes, together with physical aspects and mechanical events that are entangled towards the shaping of the mature flower.

Covarying suites of phenotypic traits, or modules, are increasingly recognized to promote morphological evolution. However, information on how modularity influences flower diversity is rare and lacking for Orchidaceae. Here, we combine high-resolution X-ray computed tomography scanning with three-dimensional geometric morphometrics and phylogenetic comparative methods to test various hypotheses about three-dimensional patterns of flower evolutionary modularity in Malagasy Bulbophyllum orchids and examine rates and modes of module evolution. Based on the four evolutionary modules identified (i.e., sepals, lateral petals, labellum + column-foot, and column-part), our data support the hypothesis that both genetic-developmental and functional adaptive factors shaped evolutionary flower trait covariation in these tropical orchids. In line with “evo-devo” studies, we also find that the labellum evolved independently from the rest of the petal whorl. Finally, we show that modules evolved with different rates, and either in a neutral fashion (only column-part) or under selective constraints, as likely imposed by pollinators. Overall, this study supports current views that modular units can enhance the range and rate of morphological evolution.

We address how a conflict between pollinator attraction and avoidance of flower predation influences the evolution of flower shape in Polemonium viscosum. Flower shape in P. viscosum is the product of an isometric relationship between genetically correlated (rA= 0.70) corolla flare and length. Bumblebee pollinators preferentially visit flowers that are more flared and have longer tubes, selecting for a funnel‐shaped corolla. However, flower shape also influences nectar‐foraging ants that sever the style at its point of attachment to the ovary. Surveys of ant damage show that plants having flowers with flared, short corollas are most vulnerable to ant predation. Consistent with this result, the ratio of corolla length to flare is significantly greater in a krummholz (high predation risk) population than in a tundra (low predation risk) population. To explicitly test whether the evolution of a better defended flower would exact a cost in pollination, we created tubular flowers by constricting the corolla during development. Performance of tubular flowers and natural controls was compared for defensive and attractive functions. In choice trials, ants entered control flowers significantly more often than tubular ones, confirming that the evolution of tubular flowers would reduce the risk of predation. However, in a bumblebee‐pollinated population, tubular flowers received significantly less pollen and set fewer seeds than controls. A fitness model incorporating these data predicts that in the absence of the genetic correlation between corolla length and flare, intermittent selection for defense could allow tubular flowers to spread in the krummholz population. However, in the tundra, where bumblebees account for nearly all pollination, the model predicts that tubular flowers should always confer a fitness disadvantage.

Flower shape is a key trait of ornamental and commercial importance in breeding programs for chrysanthemum (Chrysanthemum morifolium Ramat.). Understanding the genetic basis of the phenotypic variation seen in inflorescence-related traits will contribute to genetic improvement and to the development of new varieties. In this study, we investigated the genetic determinants of inflorescence traits using an F1 segregating population derived from a cross between two cultivars with different inflorescence types, ‘Puma White’ (anemone-shaped inflorescence) and ‘Dancer’ (single-type inflorescence). Genotyping-by-sequencing identified 26,847 single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) between 182 F1 progenies and their parents. A genome-wide association study highlighted 17 SNPs mapping to 15 GBS-tags as being significantly associated with three inflorescence traits: flower type, number of ray florets, and disk flower diameter. No single SNP was associated with flower diameter. These SNP-harboring sequences defined ten candidate genes associated with inflorescence traits. We explored the transcript levels for nine of these in flower buds, disk florets and ray florets using publicly available genome and transcriptome data. These results will provide the genetic and genomic foundation to harness important horticultural traits and explore new avenues in chrysanthemum breeding.

Specific factors that determine whether hummingbirds feed from flowers matching their bill morphology are not well understood. Here, we asked whether long-billed hummingbirds at tropical mid-elevations visit flowers that match their bill morphology more often when those flowers are more energetically profitable in terms of nectar concentration compared to short-corolla flowers. We measured visitation rates by hummingbirds in 3 experiments involving feeders with 5 flower morphologies and 2 nectar concentrations in the mountains of Costa Rica. Not surprisingly, all species tended to prefer higher nectar concentration when given the choice across all available flower morphologies. When nectar concentration was the same across all flower morphologies, hummingbirds with bills shorter than 28 mm generally avoided long-corolla flowers (30 mm) and fed more frequently from short-corolla flowers (10 mm), while species with longer bills did not show a preference. When nectar concentration was higher in long-corolla flowers compared to short-corolla flowers (30% vs 10% m/v), short-billed species showed the same visitation rates as above, but long-billed species (>28 mm) changed their visitation patterns and visited long-corolla flowers significantly more often than short-corolla flowers. Our results suggest that visitation rates of long-billed hummingbirds to long-corolla flowers might be influenced more by nectar properties than by flower morphology at mid-elevations in the tropics. Los factores específicos que determinan si los colibríes se alimentan de flores que se ajustan a la morfología de su pico no se conocen bien. Aquí, nos preguntamos si los colibríes de pico largo en elevaciones medias tropicales visitan más frecuentemente las flores que se ajustan a su morfología de pico cuando éstas son energéticamente mas rentables en términos de concentración de néctar comparadas con flores de corola corta. Medimos la tasa de visitación de colibríes en 3 experimentos que involucraron comederos con 5 morfologías florales y 2 concentraciones de néctar en las montañas de Costa Rica. Sin que resultara sorprendente, todas las especies prefirieron concentraciones de néctar mas altas en todas las morfologías florales cuando se les dio la opción. Cuando la concentración de néctar fue la misma en todas las morfologías florales, los colibríes con picos mas cortos que 28 mm generalmente evitaron flores de corola larga (30 mm) y se alimentaron mas frecuentemente de flores de corola corta (10 mm), mientras que colibríes de pico mas largo no mostraron preferencia. Cuando la concentración de néctar fue mas alta en flores de corola larga comparada con flores de corola corta (30 vs 10% m/v), las especies de pico corto mostraron los mismos patrones de visitación mencionados arriba, pero las especies de pico largo (>28 mm) cambiaron los patrones de visitación y visitaron las flores de corola larga significativamente con mas frecuencia que las flores de corola corta. Nuestros resultados sugieren que las tasas de visitación de colibríes de pico largo a flores de corola larga se pueden ver influenciadas más por las propiedades del néctar que por la morfología floral en elevaciones tropicales medias. Palabras clave: alimentación de colibríes, coevolución, concentración de néctar, flores artificiales, forma floral, síndrome de polinización.