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Triadimefon is a typical systemic fungicide that is widely used in the management of powdery mildew, rust disease, and southern blight. In this study, we measured fungicide residue to profile its absorption, translocation, and accumulation in three representative vegetable crops (Pak choi, cucumber, and pepper) after over-application. The fungicides were applied through entire-plant spraying (EPS), root-irrigation (RI), and middle-leaf-daubing (MLD). The half-life of triadimefon depends on the application method and plant species. In EPS, the half-life was 5.42 days (Pak choi), 6.86 days (cucumber), and 6.73 days (pepper), while in RI it was 4.39 days (Pak choi), 6.30 days (cucumber), and 5.98 days (pepper). In the EPS treatment, triadimefon is translocated both upward/outside and downward/inner-side from the daubed leaves in all the three vegetable crops. The transfer amount to each organ reached a peak on the 2nd day after fungicide application. The mesophyll of Pak choi exhibited a higher fungicide deposition compared to the petiole. In cucumber and pepper, the leaves demonstrated the highest accumulation of triadimefon (approximately 0.3–0.5 mg·kg −1 ), followed by stems. Roots and fruits displayed the lowest levels of triadimefon accumulation. Furthermore, triadimefon was found to have an impact on chlorophyll content, root activity, as well as the activity of superoxide dismutase and catalase in Pak choi, indicating its potential as a plant growth regulator. These aforementioned studies provide novel insights for the safe and efficient application of triadimefon in the production of Pak choi, cucumber, and pepper.

Cercospora leaf spot, caused by the fungal pathogen Cercospora beticola, is the most destructive foliar disease of sugar beet worldwide. This review discusses C. beticola genetics, genomics, and biology and summarizes our current understanding of the molecular interactions that occur between C. beticola and its sugar beet host. We highlight the known virulence arsenal of C. beticola as well as its ability to overcome currently used disease management strategies. Finally, we discuss future prospects for the study and management of C. beticola infections in the context of newly employed molecular tools to uncover additional information regarding the biology of this pathogen. Taxonomy Cercospora beticola Sacc.; Kingdom Fungi, Phylum Ascomycota, Class Dothideomycetes, Order Capnodiales, Family Mycosphaerellaceae, Genus Cercospora. Host range Well‐known pathogen of sugar beet (Beta vulgaris subsp. vulgaris) and most species of the Beta genus. Reported as pathogenic on other members of the Chenopodiaceae (e.g., lamb's quarters, spinach) as well as members of the Acanthaceae (e.g., bear's breeches), Apiaceae (e.g., Apium), Asteraceae (e.g., chrysanthemum, lettuce, safflower), Brassicaceae (e.g., wild mustard), Malvaceae (e.g., Malva), Plumbaginaceae (e.g., Limonium), and Polygonaceae (e.g., broad‐leaved dock) families. Disease symptoms Leaves infected with C. beticola exhibit circular lesions that are coloured tan to grey in the centre and are often delimited by tan‐brown to reddish‐purple rings. As disease progresses, spots can coalesce to form larger necrotic areas, causing severely infected leaves to wither and die. At the centre of these spots are black spore‐bearing structures (pseudostromata). Older leaves often show symptoms first and younger leaves become infected as the disease progresses. Management Application of a mixture of fungicides with different modes of action is currently performed although elevated resistance has been documented in most employed fungicide classes. Breeding for high‐yielding cultivars with improved host resistance is an ongoing effort and prudent cultural practices, such as crop rotation, weed host management, and cultivation to reduce infested residue levels, are widely used to manage disease. Useful website https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/genome/11237?genome_assembly_id=352037 The hemibiotrophic fungus Cercospora beticola applies various virulence strategies to infect sugar beet and is currently only managed in‐field through integrated practices.

Interactions among plant species and their soil biota drive plant–soil feedbacks (PSFs) that play a major role in the dynamics and diversity of plant communities. Among the different components of the soil community, pathogens are considered to be the main drivers of negative PSFs. Despite this, the number of studies that have experimentally quantified the contribution of soil pathogens to PSFs remains considerably low. Here we conducted a greenhouse experiment with oomycete-specific fungicide to quantify the contribution of soil pathogens, and particularly oomycete pathogens, to individual and pairwise PSFs in forest communities. We used as a case study Mediterranean mixed forests dominated by Quercus suber and invaded by the oomycete pathogen Phytophthora cinnamomi. The fungicide treatment was crossed with a competition treatment to explore how conspecific neighbors might modify pathogen effects. To place the results of the experiment in a wider context, we also conducted a systematic review of published papers that explicitly used fungicide to explore the role of pathogens in PSF experiments. Our experimental results showed that oomycete pathogens were the main drivers of individual PSFs in the study forests. Oomycete effects varied among tree species according to their susceptibility to P. cinnamomi, driving negative PSFs in the highly susceptible Q. suber but not in the coexistent Olea europaea. Oomycete-driven PSFs were not modified by intraspecific competition. Oomycete pathogens were also major contributors to negative pairwise PSFs assumed to promote species coexistence. Results from the systematic review supported the novelty of our experimental results, since only three studies had previously used oomycete-specific fungicide in a PSF context and none in systems invaded by exotic oomycetes. Overall, our results provide novel evidence of oomycete pathogens (including the exotic P. cinnamomi) as fundamental drivers of negative individual and pairwise PSFs with implications for species coexistence in invaded communities. Although in the short-term invasive pathogens might contribute to species coexistence by causing self-limitation in dominant species, strong inter-specific variation in self-limitation might undermine coexistence in the long-term. Because of the increasing number of exotic oomycetes worldwide, further attention should be given to oomycetes as drivers of PSFs in plant communities.

Beneficial microbes are applied to the soil and plant tissues directly or through seed inoculation, whereas soil application is preferred when there is risk of inhibitors or antagonistic microbes on the plant tissues. Insufficient survival of the microorganisms, hindrance in application of fungicides to the seeds and exposure to heat and sunlight in subsequent seed storage in conventional inoculation methods force to explore appropriate and efficient bacterial application method. Seed priming, where seeds are hydrated to activate metabolism without actual germination followed by drying, increases the germination, stand establishment and stress tolerance in different crops. Seed priming with living bacterial inoculum is termed as biopriming that involves the application of plant growth promoting rhizobacteria. It increases speed and uniformity of germination; also ensures rapid, uniform and high establishment of crops; and hence improves harvest quality and yield. Seed biopriming allows the bacteria to enter/adhere the seeds and also acclimatization of bacteria in the prevalent conditions. This review focuses on methods used for biopriming, and also the role in improving crop productivity and stress tolerance along with prospects of this technology. The comparison of methods being followed is also reviewed proposing biopriming as a promising technique for application of beneficial microbes to the seeds. The article reviews the potential of seed priming with plant growth promoting bacteria over conventional methods of bacterial application to the soil in improving plant productivity. Graphical Abstract Figure. The article reviews the potential of seed priming with plant growth promoting bacteria over conventional methods of bacterial application to the soil in improving plant productivity.

Boxwood, a low-maintenance landscape plant, has been plagued by diseases in recent years, and fungicide protection is now indispensable for its healthcare. The objective of present study was to determine how fungicide chemistry and repeated application may affect phyllosphere mycobiome. Three fungicides—Daconil (chlorothalonil, contact chemistry), Banner Maxx (propiconazole, systemic chemistry), and Concert II (a combination of both chemistries)—were first applied on April 12 then repeated at 2- and 3-week intervals, product dependent. Shoots from Buxus sempervirens ‘Vardar Valley’ were sampled immediately before, 1, 7 and 14 days after fungicide application on May 26 and August 25. As determined by amplicon sequencing, fungal community composition differed between shoot surface and internal tissue, with the former being dominated by Cladosporium and the latter by Shiraia species. Fungicide applications strongly affected epiphytic fungal community diversity, structure, and many functional groups. Daconil and Concert II suppressed greater numbers of epiphytes than Banner Maxx. Many epiphytic genera became less sensitive to Daconil treatment in August. This study provided the first mycobiome evidence supporting boxwood as a low-maintenance plant and demonstrating fungicide resistance to a multisite chemistry due to repeated applications. It also helped understand boxwood rising health issues associated with increasing fungicide use.

Pre‐harvest sprouting (PHS) is a global issue affecting a multitude of crops, including wheat (Triticum aestivum L.). The combination of conducive conditions and a lack of genetic seed dormancy results in the sprouting of intact grain at or prior to harvesting. The initiation of germination synthesizes gibberellic acid resulting in the activation of the alpha‐amylase synthesis via a calcium‐dependent signal transduction pathway. Alpha‐amylase synthesized via this pathway degrades the endosperm, decreasing bread‐making quality. A commonly used indicator for bread‐making quality is the Hagberg Falling Number. Environmental, phenotypic, genetic, and management factors influence the susceptibility of wheat to PHS. Rainfall, temperature, and relative humidity are commonly associated with PHS. The combination of these conditions results in the greatest severity of PHS. Morphological features such as awns and epicuticular waxes may increase the quantity of rainfall retained against the grain, increasing the risk of PHS. Similarly, management factors such as fertilization and fungicide application also may increase the risk of PHS occurring. Further research is necessary to understand the mechanisms and impact of management factors on PHS. Additionally, further investigations are needed to explore how environmental and genotypic interactions affect PHS susceptibility. Core Ideas Environmental, phenotypic, and management factors influence pre‐harvest sprouting (PHS) susceptibility of crops. The alpha‐amylase enzymatic pathway was uncovered, contributing to understanding the mechanisms controlling PHS. A research agenda has been developed to systematically address the gaps in the literature regarding PHS.

Mycotoxins in silage corn (Zea mays L.) accumulate due to ear rot infections by certain ascomycete fungi and cause health issues in livestock. Fungal infections intensify with increase in ear‐damaging insect injury and favorable environment in the US Great Lakes region. Therefore, evaluating strategies such as hybrid insect protection and fungicide decisions to manage insects, ear rots, mycotoxin, and silage quality is crucial. Field trials were conducted in randomized complete block design at 11 Michigan site‐years across 2019–2021 using three hybrid insect protection levels under two levels of prothioconazole fungicide (treated and non‐treated). Hybrids (two per level) included: conventional (non‐Bt); Bt with Cry1F and Cry1Ab (BtE), protection only against European corn borer (ECB); and Bt with Cry1F and Vip3A (BtEW), protection against both ECB and western bean cutworm (WBC). Insect injury and ear rot index were 80%–90% and 75%–90% lower, respectively, in BtEW hybrids than non‐Bt hybrids. Strong correlation between insect injury and ear rot severity was observed when insect pressure was high. Mycotoxin levels, particularly deoxynivalenol (DON), was also lowest in BtEW hybrids. Weak correlations were observed between ear injury and mycotoxin concentration. Under low disease pressure, a 50%–70% reduction was observed in fungicide treated plots for both ear rot incidence and DON concentration. However, fungicide application did not reduce ear rot infections driven by high insect injury. Treatments had negligible impact on forage quality. Overall, results indicated that incorporating insect protection in hybrid selection decisions reduced insect feeding, disease occurrence, and mycotoxins, especially under high insect pressure. Core ideas Mycotoxins accumulate in plants due to infection by fungal pathogens and are ubiquitous in Michigan silage corn. Ear damaging insects increased mycotoxin accumulation due to wounding that intensified fungal infections. Hybrid insect protection reduced mycotoxins by preventing ear injury due to insects and reduced fungal infections. Fungicide application did not reduce ear rot infection and mycotoxin accumulation under high insect pressure.

Disease management decision support systems (DSS) are typically prediction algorithms that help farmers assess the risk of an epidemic, to guide whether, and to what extent, fungicide treatment is needed. However, there is frequently little information presented to quantify the value of using the DSS, i.e. the likely increased profit or reduced impact to the environment, and the risks of failing to control the pest. Validation of DSS is often limited to a small number of sites and seasons, as extensive field testing is prohibitively expensive. It would therefore be beneficial to have a method to estimate the value of a DSS using existing data sets gathered for other purposes.We present a theoretical framework for evaluating the value of DSS, and then describe how this can be applied in practice using four case studies of contrasting DSS under different data constraints. The four case studies include DSS that guide (i) the total dose of pesticide applied; (ii) the number of sprays required; (iii) the timing of the first fungicide application in a spray programme; and (iv) infection risk alerts. We demonstrate how our theoretical framework can be used to evaluate DSS, using existing field and literature data to infer the benefits and risks associated with their use. The limitations of using existing data are explored.

Multisite fungicides are an anti-resistance strategy to control Phakopsora pachyrhizi . Among the protective fungicides, mancozeb is a fungicide that has been highlighted. However, the interaction between the fungicide spray solution and application volume is very complex. Therefore, the goal of this work is to evaluate the effect of the application volume and the combination of fungicides with different modes of action on Asian soybean rust (ASR) control and crop yield. The fungicides mancozeb, and a mix of trifloxystrobin plus prothioconazole, and a combination of mancozeb and the mix were applied over two crop seasons, 2016/2017 and 2017/2018. Every week, the disease severity caused by the fungus P. pachyrhizi was evaluated. Fungicide spraying started with the occurrence of the first pustules of disease. Subsequently, the data were used to calculate the area under the disease progress curve (AUDPC). All fungicide treatments reduced the AUDPC. The trifloxystrobin plus prothioconazole fungicide mixture was impacted to a greater extent by a reduction in application volume. The fungicide mixture with trifloxystrobin plus prothioconazole and mancozeb resulted in a lower AUDPC. It is possible to control ASR disease only with mancozeb. The effect of the application volume and the spray solution have an impact on disease control under particular crop season conditions. The lower application that provides the maximum control of SAR and greater productivity is dependent on the disease severity.

Some farmers regard wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) as a low‐input crop, whereas other farmers intensively manage wheat with many inputs, such as multiple foliar fungicide applications, S fertilizer, and split applications of N. This research aimed to identify the management practices that improve the yield and profitability of wheat grain and straw. An incomplete factorial omission trial was established at two locations in Ohio [the Western Agricultural Research Station (WARS) and Northwest Agricultural Research Station (NWARS)] during the 2020 and 2021 growing seasons. The tested management practices included a high seeding rate, a high N rate, a split application of N, a spring S application, a fungicide application at Feekes 9, and a fungicide application at Feekes 10.5.1. The treatments were intensive management (IM) (all tested management practices), traditional management (TM) (none of the tested management practices), and treatments consisting of the individual addition of each practice to TM or removal from the IM system. The IM increased grain yield at three of the four site‐years by an average of 0.83 Mg ha−1 but did not increase the partial economic return at any site‐year during this study. Individual treatment effects were rare and inconsistent. These results suggest that although IM can improve grain yield, it failed to do so economically at the grain prices and input costs used in this study. Farmers should use crop scouting techniques and disease forecasting tools to identify wheat fields that are likely to benefit from additional inputs such as fertilizer or foliar fungicide. Core Ideas Intensive management of wheat increased grain yield in three out of four site‐years. Foliar fungicide applied at Feekes 10.5.1 provided the most consistent yield benefit. Intensive management did not improve profitability compared with traditional management. Wheat straw yield was not influenced by any management practice.