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There are several theoretical reasons why globalization will have a narrowing as well as a widening effect on the gender wage gap, but little is known about the actual impact, except for some country studies. This study contributes to the literature in three respects. First, it is a large cross-country study of the impact of globalization on the gender wage gap. Second, it employs the rarely used ILO October Inquiry database, which is the most far-ranging survey of wages around the world. Third, it focuses on the within-occupation gender wage gap, an alternative to the commonly used raw and residual wage gaps as a measure of the gender wage gap. This study finds that the occupational gender wage gap tends to decrease with increasing economic development, at least in richer countries, and to decrease with trade and foreign direct investment (FDI) in richer countries, but finds little evidence that trade and FDI also reduce the occupational gender wage gap in poorer countries.

Women are disadvantaged relative to men, according to key economic, social, and political measures of equality, but in many areas, such as education, differences are narrowing. The concept of externalities underlies the arguments for including gender considerations in budget programs and policies. Other arguments have a weaker economic basis but may be more socially or politically compelling. The experience to date with \"gender budgeting,\" which entails looking at gender issues comprehensively within the budget, has been mixed. To become more useful, gender budgeting should be integrated into budget processes in a way that generates tangible improvements in policy outcomes. The International Monetary Fund should encourage fiscal authorities to take into account the external benefits of reducing gender inequalities and to remove from fiscal legislation any arbitrary discrimination against women.

This chapter contains sections titled: Linguistic Typology Noun Phrase Morphology in Indo‐European Noun Phrase Morphology in the Germanic Languages The Old English Noun Phrase The Breakdown of Gender and Case Systems The Partial Breakdown of Noun Declensions and Plurality Conclusion References and Further Reading

Triglycerides are the major form of stored fat in all animals. One important determinant of whole-body fat storage is whether an animal is male or female. Here, we use Drosophila , an established model for studies on triglyceride metabolism, to gain insight into the genes and physiological mechanisms that contribute to sex differences in fat storage. Our analysis of triglyceride storage and breakdown in both sexes identified a role for triglyceride lipase brummer ( bmm ) in the regulation of sex differences in triglyceride homeostasis. Normally, male flies have higher levels of bmm mRNA both under normal culture conditions and in response to starvation, a lipolytic stimulus. We find that loss of bmm largely eliminates the sex difference in triglyceride storage and abolishes the sex difference in triglyceride breakdown via strongly male-biased effects. Although we show that bmm function in the fat body affects whole-body triglyceride levels in both sexes, in males, we identify an additional role for bmm function in the somatic cells of the gonad and in neurons in the regulation of whole-body triglyceride homeostasis. Furthermore, we demonstrate that lipid droplets are normally present in both the somatic cells of the male gonad and in neurons, revealing a previously unrecognized role for bmm function, and possibly lipid droplets, in these cell types in the regulation of whole-body triglyceride homeostasis. Taken together, our data reveal a role for bmm function in the somatic cells of the gonad and in neurons in the regulation of male–female differences in fat storage and breakdown and identify bmm as a link between the regulation of triglyceride homeostasis and biological sex.

Social norms can have a persistent influence on outcomes. Since the end of World War II, men have been the primary breadwinner in most households in the developed world, and US data from the late twentieth century suggests violation of this norm stresses partnerships. Is this still true? We examine whether female breadwinning makes partnerships less healthy or less stable using more recent US and Australian data. We find a much more modest association in both countries between female breadwinning and measures of relationship health or stability in OLS models for mixed-gender couples than has been found in prior studies. Transitions into female breadwinning are problematic mainly for cohabiting couples and especially so for younger people and less-educated men. These results suggest that social norms may be weakening, but mating market dynamics may also play a role. We find some evidence that cohabiting women in Australia who out-earn their partners subsequently re-partner with men who have higher earnings relative to themselves.

Background An intact blood‐brain barrier (BBB) is critical for optimal brain health, and even transient or highly localized disruption of the BBB can have devastating consequences for neural functioning. BBB breakdown has been implicated in Alzheimer’s Disease (AD) pathogenesis, and elevated BBB permeability has been observed in APOE e4 carriers compared to non‐carriers. As prior studies have focused on a priori, AD‐vulnerable regions rather than whole‐brain analyses, little is understood about broader patterns of BBB breakdown that may relate to AD risk. This study aims to identify preclinical cerebrovascular differences in cognitively normal individuals who are genetically at high‐risk for AD. Method Dynamic contrast‐enhanced magnetic resonance imaging (DCE‐MRI) was performed on 34 cognitively normal older adults (average age = 76.6 years; 18 women) from the UC San Diego Alzheimer’s Disease Research Center, evenly split by APOE e4 status. Data were processed using ROCKETSHIP and average BBB permeability values were extracted from the Desikan‐Killiany atlas cortical gray matter regions. Permeability values were averaged across hemispheres, resulting in 34 measurements. ANCOVAs predicted BBB permeability within each region from e4 status, age, sex, and the interaction between sex and e4 status. Result APOE e4 carriers showed elevated BBB permeability throughout the superolateral frontal and parietal cortices and some occipital cortex compared to non‐carriers. The strongest effects were found in the caudal‐middle and superior frontal, pre‐ and paracentral, and superior parietal gyri. Further, there was a pattern of sex by e4 carrier status interaction whereby the e4 effect was stronger in men than women. Conclusion Older adults who carry at least one APOE e4 allele show increased BBB permeability compared to e4 non‐carriers primarily in superior frontal and parietal regions, a spatial pattern that is notably distinct from the typical topography of AD pathology. This effect may be moderated by sex, such that men may be more vulnerable to the detrimental effects of APOE e4 on certain regions of the BBB compared to women. These findings raise implications for important questions regarding APOE4 dose effects, the mechanisms by which APOE regulates BBB functioning, and the evolution of BBB permeability through the disease course.

Premise Plants with separate sexes often show “inconstant” or “leaky” sex expression, with females or males producing a few flowers of the opposite sex. The frequency and degree of such inconstancy may reflect residual hermaphroditic sex allocation after an evolutionary transition from combined to separate sexes. Sex inconstancy also represents a possible first step in the breakdown of dioecy back to hermaphroditism. In the Mercurialis annua (Euphorbiaceae) species complex, monoecy and androdioecy have evolved from dioecy in polyploid populations. Here, we characterize patterns of sex inconstancy in dioecious M. annua and discuss how sex inconstancy may have contributed to the breakdown of separate sexes in the genus. Methods We measured sex inconstancy in three common gardens of M. annua over 2 years using a modification of Lloyd's phenotypic gender in terms of frequency and degree, with the degree calibrating inconstancy against the sex allocation of constant males and constant females, yielding a measure of gender that does not depend on the distribution of gender in the population. Results Unusually for dioecious plants, the frequency of sex inconstancy in M. annua was greater in females, but its degree was greater for males in the 2 years of study. We suggest that this pattern is consistent with the maintenance of inconstancy in dioecious M. annua by selection for reproductive assurance under mate limitation. Conclusions Our study illustrates the utility of decomposing measures of sex inconstancy into its frequency and its degree and throws new light on the origin of variation in sexual systems in Mercurialis.

As the United States rushed toward industrial and technological modernization in the late nineteenth century, people worried that the workplace had become too competitive, the economy too turbulent, domestic chores too taxing, while new machines had created a fast-paced environment that sickened the nation. Physicians testified that, without a doubt, modern civilization was causing a host of ills-everything from irritability to insomnia, lethargy to weight loss, anxiety to lack of ambition, and indigestion to impotence. They called this conditionneurasthenia. Neurasthenic Nationinvestigates how the concept of neurasthenia helped doctors and patients, men and women, and advertisers and consumers negotiate changes commonly associated with \"modernity.\" Combining a survey of medical and popular literature on neurasthenia with original research into rare archives of personal letters, patient records, and corporate files, David Schuster charts the emergence of a \"neurasthenic nation\"-a place where people saw their personal health as inextricably tied to the pitfalls and possibilities of a changing world.

Background Persistent neurological symptoms including cognitive impairment can follow SARS‐CoV‐2 infection, a condition termed neurological post‐acute sequelae of COVID‐19 (Neuro‐PASC). Structural brain differences have been observed in individuals with Neuro‐PASC, raising concern that COVID‐19 may promote age‐related neurodegeneration. However, the mechanisms by which COVID‐19 impairs cognition and its impact on brain aging, remain poorly characterized. Blood‐brain barrier (BBB) dysfunction has been observed in Alzheimer’s disease and has been hypothesized to contribute to Neuro‐PASC, implicating potential acceleration of Alzheimer’s disease pathogenesis by COVID‐19. The present study evaluated BBB permeability and brain microstructure among older adults with Neuro‐PASC, along with modification by sex and APOE4, risk factors for Alzheimer’s disease that have also been associated with COVID‐19 outcomes. Method Older adults (50‐90 years; 54% women) with (N=16) or without (N=43) Neuro‐PASC underwent neuropsychological testing as well as multi‐shell diffusion MRI and dynamic contrast‐enhanced MRI to measure restriction spectrum imaging (RSI) metrics of brain microstructure and BBB permeability in subcortical, white matter, and gray matter regions of interest. ANCOVA compared cognitive and MRI measures between Neuro‐PASC and healthy controls, and models were repeated assessing interactions with sex or APOE4. Partial correlations examined associations between brain microstructure and BBB permeability. Models were adjusted for age and sex, with further adjustment for education for cognitive scores, and for MRI software for RSI measures. Result Neuro‐PASC participants had worse episodic memory performance, higher white matter BBB permeability, and lower neurite density and hindered diffusion than controls. APOE4 carriers demonstrated more pronounced PASC‐related cognitive impairment and microstructural abnormalities than non‐carriers. PASC‐related BBB leakage was stronger among men, whereas women showed stronger PASC‐related increases in free water and decreases in restricted diffusion. Among Neuro‐PASC, but not controls, hippocampal BBB permeability correlated with greater hippocampal free water. Conclusion Older adults with persistent COVID‐19‐related neurological complaints demonstrate objective cognitive impairment accompanied by BBB dysfunction and microstructural brain abnormalities. PASC‐related cognitive decline, BBB breakdown, and microstructural injury differ by sex and are magnified among APOE4 carriers. Longitudinal investigation is warranted to determine whether PASC heightens risk for Alzheimer’s disease by accelerating cerebrovascular and neurodegenerative changes, particularly among high‐risk populations.

In April 2020, preliminary and incomplete data released by several states and large cities indicated that African Americans were at increased risk of dying from COVID-19,1-3 highlighting deep inequalities in socioeconomic resources, health, and access to care. Some, but not all, reports indicated that infection rates were also relatively high among African Americans. In early April, Mother Jones began requesting racial and ethnic breakdowns of COVID-19 infections and deaths from health departments in all 50 states and the District of Columbia.2 Of those, 21 states released no racial or ethnic breakdowns of those infected by mid-April. Twentysix states did not release breakdowns of fatalities by race. Despite the inadequacy of public health surveillance data, there was reason to be deeply concerned about the disproportionate impact COVID-19 was having on African Americans. The initial reports ofpronounced ethnic disparities in COVID-19 mortality rates quickly led to concerted calls from community activists, policymakers, and lawmakers for improved public health surveillance data that provide monitoring of racial disparities in rates of infection, hospitalizations, and deaths.Epidemiological data indicate that marked racial disparities exist in confirmed COVID-19 cases and deaths, with higher rates among African Americans. Racial disparities are evident in all regions of the country (Table 1).1 7 Current data are preliminary and limited. Comprehensive surveillance data are urgently needed that include racial/ethnic characteristics and gender, underscoring that some US populations are disproportionately affected by COVID-19. At a later stage, differentials based on zip codes, as was done years ago for HIV in several locations, could further map population disparities in COVID-19 in greater detail.