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• During the evolution of land plants from aquatic to terrestrial environments, their aerial surfaces were surrounded by cuticle composed of cutin and cuticular waxes to protect them from environmental stresses. Glycerol-3-phosphate acyltransferase (GPAT) harboring bifunctional sn-2 acyltransferase/phosphatase activity produces 2-monoacylglycerol, a precursor for cutin synthesis. • Here, we report that bifunctional sn-2 GPATs play roles in cuticle biosynthesis and game-tophore development of Physcomitrella patens. • Land plant-type cuticle was observed in gametophores but not in protonema. The expression of endoplasmic reticulum-localized PpGPATs was significantly upregulated in game-tophores compared with protonema. Floral organ fusion and permeable cuticle phenotypes of Arabidopsis gpat6-2 petals were rescued to the wild type (WT) by the expression of PpGPAT2 or PpGPAT4. Disruption of PpGPAT2 and PpGPAT4 caused a significant reduction of total cutin loads, and a prominent decrease in the levels of palmitic and 10,16-dihydroxydecanoic acids, which are major cutin monomers in gametophores. Δppgpat2 mutants displayed growth retardation, delayed gametophore development, increased cuticular permeability, and reduced tolerance to drought, osmotic and salt stresses compared to the WT. • Genome-wide analysis of genes encoding acyltransferase or phosphatase domains suggested that the occurrence of sn-2 GPATs with both domains may be a key event in cuticle biogenesis of land plants.

Glycerol-3-phosphate acyltransferase (GPAT) catalyzes the first step in triacylglycerol (TAG) biosynthesis. However, GPAT members and their functions remain poorly understood in Perilla frutescens, a special edible-medicinal plant with its seed oil rich in polyunsaturated fatty acids (mostly α-linolenic acid, ALA). Here, 14 PfGPATs were identified from the P. frutescens genome and classified into three distinct groups according to their phylogenetic relationships. These 14 PfGPAT genes were distributed unevenly across 11 chromosomes. PfGPAT members within the same subfamily had highly conserved gene structures and four signature functional domains, despite considerable variations detected in these conserved motifs between groups. RNA-seq and RT-qPCR combined with dynamic analysis of oil and FA profiles during seed development indicated that PfGPAT9 may play a crucial role in the biosynthesis and accumulation of seed oil and PUFAs. Ex vivo enzymatic assay using the yeast expression system evidenced that PfGPAT9 had a strong GPAT enzyme activity crucial for TAG assembly and also a high substrate preference for oleic acid (OA, C18:1) and ALA (C18:3). Heterogeneous expression of PfGPAT9 significantly increased total oil and UFA (mostly C18:1 and C18:3) levels in both the seeds and leaves of the transgenic tobacco plants. Moreover, these transgenic tobacco lines exhibited no significant negative effect on other agronomic traits, including plant growth and seed germination rate, as well as other morphological and developmental properties. Collectively, our findings provide important insights into understanding PfGPAT functions, demonstrating that PfGPAT9 is the desirable target in metabolic engineering for increasing storage oil enriched with valuable FA profiles in oilseed crops.

Glycerol-3-phosphoacyltransferase (GPAT) is an important rate-limiting enzyme in the biosynthesis of triacylglycerol (TAG), which is of great significance for plant growth, development, and response to abiotic stress. Although the characteristics of GPAT have been studied in many model plants, little is known about its expression profile and function in barley, especially under abiotic stress. In this study, 22 GPAT genes were identified in the barley genome and divided into three groups (I, II, III), with the latter Group III subdivided further into three subgroups based on the phylogenetic analysis. The analyses of conserved motifs, gene structures, and the three-dimensional structure of HvGPAT proteins also support this classification. Through evolutionary analysis, we determined that HvGPATs in Group I were the earliest to diverge during 268.65 MYA, and the differentiation of other HvGPATs emerged during 86.83–169.84 MYA. The tissue expression profile showed that 22 HvGPAT genes were almost not expressed in INF1 (inflorescence 1). Many functional elements related to stress responses and hormones in cis-element analysis, as well as qRT-PCR results, confirm that these HvGPAT genes were involved in abiotic stress responses. The expression level of HvGPAT18 was significantly increased under abiotic stress and its subcellular localization indicated its function in the endoplasmic reticulum. Various physiological traits under abiotic stress were evaluated using transgenic Arabidopsis to gain further insight into the role of HvGPAT18, and it was found that transgenic seedlings have stronger resistance under abiotic stress than to the wild-type (WT) plants. Overall, our results provide new insights into the evolution and function of the barley GPAT gene family and enable us to explore the molecular mechanism of functional diversity behind the evolutionary history of these genes.

Glycerol-3-phosphate acyltransferase (GPAT), as a rate-limiting enzyme engaged in lipid synthesis pathways, exerts an important role in plant growth and development as well as environmental adaptation throughout diverse growth stages. Alfalfa (Medicago sativa L.) is one of the most significant leguminous forages globally; however, its growth process is frequently exposed to environmental stress, giving rise to issues such as impeded growth and decreased yield. At present, the comprehension of the GPAT genes in alfalfa and their reactions to abiotic stresses is conspicuously deficient. This study identified 15 GPATs from the genome of “Zhongmu No. 1” alfalfa, which were phylogenetically categorized into three major groups (Groups I ~ III). Furthermore, Group III is further subdivided into three distinct subgroups. MsGPATs belonging to the same subfamily exhibited similar protein conserved motifs and gene structural characteristics, in which groups with simple conserved motifs had more complex gene structures. A multitude of regulatory cis-elements pertinent to hormones and responses to environmental stress were detected in their promoter regions. In addition, a spatial–temporal expression analysis showed that MsGPATs have significant tissue specificity. Furthermore, the transcriptomic analysis of ABA treatment and the qRT-PCR results under drought, salt, and cold stress demonstrated that the majority of MsGPATs respond to abiotic stress with pronounced timely characteristics. It was also ascertained that these GPAT genes might assume a crucial role in salt and drought stress. This research can further constitute a fundamental basis for the exploration of the alfalfa GPAT family, the screening of key GPATs, and the investigation of their functionalities.

A tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum Mill.) glycerol-3-phosphate acyltransferase gene (LeGPAT) was isolated. The deduced amino acid sequence revealed that LeGPAT contained four acyltransferase domains, showing high identities with GPAT in other plant species. A GFP fusion protein of LeGPAT was targeted to chloroplast in cowpea mesophyll protoplast. RNA gel blot showed that the mRNA accumulation of LeGPAT in the wild type (WT) was induced by chilling temperature. Higher expression levels were observed when tomato leaves were exposed to 4°C for 4 h. RNA gel and western blot analysis confirmed that the sense gene LeGPAT was transferred into the tomato genome and overexpressed under the control of 35S-CaMV. Although tomato is classified as a chilling-sensitive plant, LeGPAT exhibited selectivity to 18:1 over 16:0. Overexpression of LeGPAT increased total activity of LeGPAT and cis-unsaturated fatty acids in PG in thylakoid membrane. Chilling treatment induced less ion leakage from the transgenic plants than from the WT. The photosynthetic rate and the maximal photochemical efficiency of PS II (Fv/Fm) in transgenic plants decreased more slowly during chilling stress and recovered faster than in WT under optimal conditions. The oxidizable P700 in both WT and transgenic plants decreased obviously at chilling temperature under low irradiance, but the oxidizable P700 recovered faster in transgenic plants than in the WT. These results indicate that overexpression of LeGPAT increased the levels of PG cis-unsaturated fatty acids in thylakoid membrane, which was beneficial for the recovery of chilling-induced PS I photoinhibition in tomato.

To analyze the contribution of glycerol-3-phosphate acyltransferase (GPAT) to the first acylation of glycerol-3-phosphate (G-3-P), the present study focused on a functional analysis of the GPAT gene from Lobosphaera incisa (designated as LiGPAT). A full-length cDNA of LiGPAT consisting of a 1,305-bp ORF, a 1,652-bp 5'-UTR, and a 354-bp 3'-UTR, was cloned. The ORF encoded a 434-amino acid peptide, of which 63 residues at the N-terminus defined a chloroplast transit peptide. Multiple sequence alignment and phylogeny analysis of GPAT homologs provided the convincible bioinformatics evidence that LiGPAT was localized to chloroplasts. Considering the conservation of His among the G-3-P binding sites from chloroplastidial GPATs and the substitution of His by Arg at position 195 in the LiGPAT mature protein (designated mLiGPAT), we established the heterologous expression of either mLiGPAT or its mutant (Arg195His) (sdmLiGPAT) in the GPAT-deficient yeast mutant gat1Δ. Lipid profile analyses of these transgenic yeasts not only validated the acylation function of LiGPAT but also indicated that the site-directed mutagenesis from Arg(195) to His led to an increase in the phospholipid level in yeast. Semi-quantitative analysis of mLiGPAT and sdmLiGPAT, together with the structural superimposition of their G-3-P binding sites, indicated that the increased enzymatic activity was caused by the enlarged accessible surface of the phosphate group binding pocket when Arg(195) was mutated to His. Thus, the potential of genetic manipulation of GPAT to increase the glycerolipid level in L. incisa and other microalgae would be of great interest.

Glycerol-3-phosphate acyltransferase (GPAT) is considered as the rate-limiting enzyme of glycerolipid synthesis pathway and the core element in lysophosphatidic acid (LPA) synthesis. For understanding its catalytic mechanism, the structural biology study is expected, but is always hindered by obtaining crystals for X-ray diffraction analysis. In this study, a progressive strategy to optimize the crystal of microalgae plastidial GPAT was presented. After the expression and purification of GPAT, the crystals were screened by hanging-drop and only clusters were obtained. The crystals were optimized by adjusting temperature, pH, protein concentration, or precipitant, but little improvement. To improve the interaction between protein and precipitant, the isopropanol was applied as co-precipitant. The qualified crystals formed. It’s suggested that isopropanol is critical to affect protein crystallization by altering polyethylene glycol (PEG)-water-protein interaction when PEG serves as precipitant. The resulting crystal diffracted to a resolution of 2.75 Å and belonged to space group P1, with unit-cell parameters a = 50.79, b = 80.09, c = 88.21 Å, and α = 62.85, β = 73.04, γ = 80.53°. This work introduced a new strategy to optimize the crystal of the heterogeneous catalysis enzymes like GPAT and provided the fundamental structural information for the oriented synthesis of marine microalgae glycerolipid.

To analyze the contribution of glycerol-3-phosphate acyltransferase (GPAT) to the first acylation of glycerol-3-phosphate (G-3-P), the present study focused on a functional analysis of the GPAT gene from Lobosphaera incisa (designated as LiGPAT) and the subcellular localization of the encoded protein LiGPAT. A full-length cDNA of LiGPAT consisting of a 1,305-bp ORF, a 1,652-bp 5′-UTR, and a 354-bp 3′-UTR, was cloned. The ORF encoded a 434-amino acid peptide, of which 63 residues at the N-terminus defined a chloroplast transit peptide. LiGPAT was exclusively localized to chloroplasts, which was shown by co-expression of LiGPAT with eGFP in Chlamydomonas reinhardtii and by immunogold labeling in L. incisa. Considering the conservation of His among the G-3-P binding sites from chloroplastidial GPATs and the substitution of His by Arg at position 195 in the LiGPAT mature protein (designated mLiGPAT), we established the heterologous expression of either mLiGPAT or its mutant (Arg195His) (sdmLiGPAT) in the GPAT-deficient yeast mutant gat1Δ. Lipid profile analyses of these transgenic yeasts not only validated the acylation function of LiGPAT but also indicated that the site-directed mutagenesis from Arg195 to His led to an increase in the phospholipid level in yeast. Semi-quantitative analysis of mLiGPAT and sdmLiGPAT, together with the structural superimposition of their G-3-P binding sites, indicated that the increased enzymatic activity was caused by the enlarged accessible surface of the phosphate group binding pocket when Arg195 was mutated to His. Thus, the potential of genetic manipulation of GPAT to increase the glycerolipid level in L. incisa and other microalgae would be of great interest.

Diverse acyl-CoA species and acyltransferase isoenzymes are components of a complex system that synthesizes glycerophospholipids and triacylglycerols. Saccharomyces cerevisiae has four main acyl-CoA species, two main glycerol-3-phosphate 1-O-acyltransferases (Gat1p, Gat2p), and two main 1-acylglycerol-3-phosphate O-acyltransferases (Lpt1p, Slc1p). The in vivo contribution of these isoenzymes to phospholipid heterogeneity was determined using haploids with compound mutations: gat1Δlpt1Δ, gat2Δlpt1Δ, gat1Δslc1Δ, and gat2Δslc1Δ. All mutations mildly reduced [3H]palmitic acid incorporation into phospholipids relative to triacylglycerol. Electrospray ionization tandem mass spectrometry identified few differences from wild type in gat1Δlpt1Δ, dramatic differences in gat2Δslc1Δ, and intermediate changes in gat2Δlpt1Δ and gat1Δslc1Δ. Yeast expressing Gat1p and Lpt1p had phospholipids enriched with acyl chains that were unsaturated, 18 carbons long, and paired for length. These alterations prevented growth at 18.5°C and in 10% ethanol. Therefore, Gat2p and Slc1p dictate phospholipid acyl chain composition in rich media at 30°C. Slc1p selectively pairs acyl chains of different lengths.

The contribution of membrane lipids, particularly the level of unsaturation of fatty acids, to chilling sensitivity of plants, has been intensively discussed. The biosynthesis of phosphatidyl glycerol represents a central pathway in lipid metabolism in all organisms. Glycerol-3-phosphate acyltransferase (GPAT) catalyses the first step of glycerolipid biosynthesis and, therefore, it is a potential site for triacylglycerol synthesis regulation. The cDNA for GPAT gene has been cloned and extensively characterised from several plants excluding Seabuckthorn Hippophae rhamnoides. The isolation of partial cDNA (689 bp, Accession No. EU081817) for GPAT gene from Seabuckthorn plant has been reported for the first time that shows 97 per cent homology with the Lycopersicon esculentum at nucleotide level and 93 per cent homology with the Capsicum annuum at protein level. Full-length cloning and overexpression of GPAT from Seabuckthorn will modify the ability of vegetable crops to tolerate chilling temperature by protecting the photo synthetic machinery from photoinhibition under cold conditions. Keywords: