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Plant traits and ecological strategies elucidate various aspects of ecosystem functioning and services. However, the well-recognized trade-offs evident at the species level are not always expected to mirror community-level variation. Here, we investigated, at the regional scale, the community-level trade-offs of three key plant traits representing economics and size spectra (LA—leaf area, LDMC—leaf dry matter content and SLA—specific leaf area) and Grime’s CSR (competitive, stress tolerant, ruderal) plant strategies. We compared six siliceous alpine plant communities, also representative of Habitat types of EU Community interest (Habitats Directive, 92/43/EEC), distributed along a succession gradient, using a wide range of phytosociological relevés for which we calculated community weighted mean (CWM) trait values and C -, S - and R -scores. Our aims were to: (1) determine the validity of the plant community global spectrum of trait variation within alpine habitats; (2) investigate the discriminating capacity of plant traits and strategies to identify functional niches of dominance, stress and disturbance along the succession gradient; (3) quantify the variation in community structure (species richness and total species cover) through such functional niches. We observed a clear pattern of community-level trait variation that reflected the plant economics spectrum: from acquisitive and fast-growing characteristics in pioneer succession stages, to conservative and stress-tolerant features toward the succession climax, while the productive niche typical of C -selected strategies was scarce. Species richness and total species cover were both greater at intermediate levels of S - and R -selection gradients, indicating high niche differentiation in habitats characterized by exposure to stress or disturbance. Overall, this study demonstrates that trait trade-offs between communities identified at the global scale can undergo adaptation at the regional scale caused by local environmental conditions and also confirms the applicability of CSR strategies to investigate community-level variation of alpine vegetation.

This article compares the use of litigation to enforce species protection law in the European Union (EU) with that of the United States (US). Recent legal disputes over wolf hunting on both continents offer useful case studies. Focusing on three aspects of litigation – namely, (i) against whom claims are brought, (ii) who can bring claims, and (iii) the types of claim that can be brought – the analysis contrasts US-style adversarial legalism with its European counterpart, or ‘Eurolegalism’, and assesses what each approach is able to deliver in terms of the legal protection of wolves. It is argued that Eurolegalism helps to explain the development of species protection law in the EU and its similarities to and differences from the American experience.

The legislation enacted on wolf conservation in Finland has had a number of societal, ecological and economic implications. As the number of wolves has increased, so have the conflicts over the management of the wolf population. The debate has been heated ever since Finland joined the European Union and was committed to the Habitats Directive and the conservation goals it entailed. Despite the strict legislation on wolf conservation, the number of wolves has started to drop off again as a result of illegal hunting. The conflict situation, as well as the illegal hunting, indicates that there is a lack of legitimacy in wolf conservation. This article aims at analysing these legitimacy issues in Finnish wolf conservation by using the concept of total legitimacy as an analytical tool. The aim is both to reveal the legitimacy problems in conservation and to assess whether the concept of total legitimacy is a useful tool in analysing the legitimacy of nature conservation regulation and governance. In addition, different regulatory instruments and their potential for enhancing the legitimacy and effectiveness of wolf conservation are assessed.

The aim of this paper is to identify the habitat types listed in the Habitats Directive Annex I that require low-intensity agricultural management for their existence. We assessed the link between the Annex I habitat types and agricultural practices in order to identify habitat types that depend on the continuation of agricultural practices or whose existence is prolonged or spatially enlarged via blocking or reducing the secondary succession by agricultural activities. 63 habitat types that depend on or which can profit from agricultural activities—mainly grazing and mowing—were identified. They are classified into 2 groups: (1) habitats fully dependent on the continuation of agricultural management; (2) habitats partly dependent on the continuation of agricultural management. This paper also briefly discusses habitat types for which either doubts remain on their dependence on agricultural management, or the relation to extensive farming practices exists only in part of their area of distribution in Europe or under certain site conditions, respectively. Assessments of the conservation status of habitats of European Importance by 25 EU Member States in 2007 showed that habitats identified by us as depending on agricultural practices had a worse status than non-agricultural habitats.

The Habitats Directive of the European Union requires Member States to regulate the introduction of alien species into their territory, avoiding any adverse impact on natural habitats or native fauna and flora. Italy has implemented this obligation by adopting a general prohibition on the introduction of non-native species into the environment. The Ministry of the Environment (MASE) may, however, authorize the introduction of alien species if there is no prejudice to habitats and native species. As part of the work carried out by the Research and Evaluation Unit established to analyze the conditions for applying this ban on fish species, ISPRA was asked to conduct further studies on 1) the regulatory framework in other European countries regarding the introduction of alien fish, 2) the regional distribution and year of first introduction of key alien species of fishing interest, 3) the presence of naturalized populations of these species and 4) the impacts of these species on native species and ecosystems. The evaluations focused on Coregonus lavaretus, Salvelinus umbla, Oncorhynchus mykiss, and Salmo trutta. A comparative analysis of how other European countries implemented the Habitats Directive revealed a universal ban on the release of alien species into the wild. Furthermore, 84% of the countries have adopted derogation systems for non-native species introductions. The assessment of the dates of the first introductions in Italy showed that most alien fish species were introduced in the second half of the nineteenth century, leading to the establishment of naturalized populations of all fish species of fishing interest in many basins across the country. Fifty-one native species protected by regulations are susceptible to significant impacts from Oncorhynchus mykiss and Salmo trutta. Over 60% of these native species are in an unfavourable conservation status, as documented in the latest report submitted by Italy to the European Commission.

In the second half of the 20[sup.th] Century there was a growing awareness of environmental problems, including the loss of species and habitats, resulting in many national and international initiatives, including the creation of organisations, such as the IUCN, treaties and conventions, such as Ramsar and the Berne Convention, and the establishment of networks of protected areas. Natura 2000 is a network of sites in the European Union for selected species and habitats listed in the 1979 Birds Directive and the 1992 Habitats Directive. Under the Habitats Directive a series of seminars and other meetings have been held with agreed criteria to ensure a coherent network. Despite both scientific and political difficulties the network is now nearing completion. Keywords: Natura 2000, Birds Directive, Habitats Directive, Biogeographical seminars

The European Union has made extensive biodiversity conservation efforts with the Habitats and Birds Directives and with the establishment of the Natura 2000 network of protected areas, one of the largest networks of conservation areas worldwide. We performed a gap analysis of the entire Natura 2000 system plus national protected areas and all terrestrial vertebrates (freshwater fish excluded). We also evaluated the level of connectivity of both systems, providing therefore a first estimate of the functionality of the Natura 2000 system as an effective network of protected areas. Together national protected areas and the Natura 2000 network covered more than one‐third of the European Union. National protected areas did not offer protection to 13 total gap species (i.e., species not covered by any protected area) or to almost 300 partial gap species (i.e., species whose representation target is not met). Together the Natura 2000 network and national protected areas left 1 total gap species and 121 partial gap species unprotected. The terrestrial vertebrates listed in the Habitats and Birds Directives were relatively well covered (especially birds), and overall connectivity was improved considerably by Natura 2000 sites that act as stepping stones between national protected areas. Overall, we found that the Natura 2000 network represents at continental level an important network of protected areas that acts as a good complement to existing national protected areas. However, a number of problems remain that are mainly linked to the criteria used to list the species in the Habitats and Birds Directives. The European Commission initiated in 2014 a process aimed at assessing the importance of the Birds and Habitats Directives for biodiversity conservation. Our results contribute to this assessment and suggest the system is largely effective for terrestrial vertebrates but would benefit from further updating of the species lists and field management.

Due to global environmental changes, species are appearing more frequently in places where they have not previously occurred, and this trend is expected to continue. Such range expansions can create considerable challenges and confusion for management and policy, especially for species associated with conflicts and whose management is influenced by international legal frameworks. The golden jackal (Canis aureus) in Europe represents a good case study to address the questions related to management of naturally expanding species. We review the recent expansion of the golden jackal across the continent, and address several ensuing policy and legal questions that also have clear implications for other expanding species. To that end, we analyze the EU Habitats Directive and several other international legal instruments including the Convention on Biological Diversity and the Bern Convention on European Wildlife. We also review the status of the golden jackal under national legislation and highlight some of the management confusion due to recent range expansion and inadequate legal interpretation. Specific questions we address include in which cases an expanding species is to be considered an (invasive) alien species in countries where it did not formerly occur; what countries’ conservation obligations are with respect to expanding species; what difference it makes for those obligations whether or not a species historically occurred in a country; what scope exists for lethal control of its populations; what the prospects are for transboundary cooperation at the population level; and what responses are required when colonizing species hybridise with other wildlife or domestic animals.

Based on a distribution database brought together for the recently published Atlas of the European dragonflies and damselflies, we describe the patterns of diversity and endemism of these insect groups. Highest species richness, as well as richness of predominantly lentic species, occurs in central and western-central Europe. Strictly lotic species have their centre of diversity in southwest France and parts of the Iberian Peninsula. The highest number of endemic species is found in southwest France, the Iberian Peninsula and the Balkan Peninsula. A comparison of the diversity patterns of Odonata species listed in the EU Habitats Directive with those listed in the European Red List highlights a strong mismatch between species threatened in Europe, which are mainly found in the Mediterranean, and species legally protected by the European Union, which are concentrated in central and western Europe. This mismatch has a historical origin, as the species listed in the Habitats Directive were mostly selected in the 1970s and 1980s when water quality in western and central Europe was poor. Since the 1990s, water and habitat quality has improved in these parts of Europe while in the same period the pressure on aquatic habitats in the Mediterranean has increased greatly.

This study investigates the riparian forest and scrub vegetation along the Zalomka and Upper Neretva rivers in Bosnia and Herzegovina (BiH). Despite the ecological significance of these rivers’ riparian zones, they remain underexplored, particularly regarding their floristic composition and ecological dynamics. We conducted a short-term phytosociological study in June 2023, using the Central European phytosociological method to collect and analyze 17 relevés from these riverine environments. Statistical classification identified five ecologically and floristically distinct clusters, ranging from pioneer scrub communities dominated by Salix eleagnos and Salix purpurea on gravel bars, over riparian forests on finer sediment dominated by Salix alba and/or S. euxina and Alnus rohlenae, to Salix eleagnos scrub communities with diverse mesophilous and thermophilous species. The study provides a preliminary syntaxonomical framework, assigning these clusters into relevant alliances. The findings highlight the need for further research to refine the classification and support the conservation of these unique riparian habitats, several of which are listed in the EU Habitats Directive. The study contributes to a better understanding of riparian ecosystems in the Dinaric Alps, offering insights into their conservation and management. V prispevku obravnavamo obrežno gozdno in grmičasto vegetacijo vzdolž rek Zalomke in gornje Neretve v Bosni in Hercegovini (BiH). Kljub izjemnemu ekološkemu pomenu, floristična sestava in ekološka dinamika obrežnih območij obravnavanih rek ni zadostno raziskana. Junija 2023 smo izvedli kratkotrajno fitocenološko študijo po srednjeevropski metodi, in zbrali ter analizirali 17 fitocenoloških popisov iz rečnih okolij gornje Neretve in Zalomke. Statistično smo opredelili pet ekološko in floristično različnih skupin, od prvih grmičev, v katerih prevladujeta Salix eleagnos in Salix purpurea na prodiščih, preko obrežnih gozdov na drobnejših usedlinah, v katerih prevladujeta Salix alba in/ali S. euxina in Alnus rohlenae, do grmičevih združb Salix eleagnos z raznolikimi mezofilnimi in termofilnimi vrstami. Študija zagotavlja predhodni sintaksonomski okvir, ki te skupine razvršča v ustrezne skupine. Rezultati kažejo, da so nujne nadaljnje raziskave za izboljšanje klasifikacije in podporo ohranjanju teh edinstvenih obrežnih habitatov, od katerih jih je več navedenih v Direktivi o habitatih EU. Študija prispeva k boljšemu razumevanju obrečnih ekosistemov v Dinarskem gorstvu ter ponuja vpogled v njihovo ohranjanje in upravljanje. Apstrakt. Studija vegetacije riječnih šuma i šibljaka rijeke Zalomke i gornjeg toka rijeke Neretve (Bosna i Hercegovina) – U radu se razmatra vegetacija priobalnih šuma i šibljaka duž rijeke Zalomke i gornjeg toka rijeke Neretve u Bosni i Hercegovini (BiH). Uprkos ekološkom značaju ovih priobalnih zona, ipak su ostale neistražene, naročito ako govorimo o florističkom sastavu i ekološkoj dinamici. Proveli smo kratkoročnu fitocenološku studiju u junu 2023. godine, koristeći srednjeevropski fitocenološki metod da bismo sakupili i analizirali 17 fitocenoloških snimaka ovih riječnih staništa. Statistička klasifikacija identifikovala je pet posebnih ekoloških i florističkih klastera, rangiranih od pionirskih zajednica u kojima dominiraju Salix eleagnos i Salix purpurea na šljunčanim sprudovima, preko priobalnih šuma na sitnijem sedimentu u kojima dominiraju vrste Salix alba i/ili S. euxina i Alnus rohlenae, pa sve do Salix eleagnos zajednica sa različitim mezofilnim i termofilnim vrstama. Studija pruža preliminarni sintaksonomski okvir koji ove klastere svrstava u relevantne sveze. Rezultati ističu potrebu za daljim istraživanjima kako bi se jasnije definisala klasifikacija i podržalo očuvanje ovih jedinstvenih priobalnih staništa, od kojih je nekoliko navedeno u Direktivi o staništima EU. Studija doprinosi boljem razumijevanju priobalnih ekosistema u Dinaridima i nudi uvid u njihovo očuvanje i upravljanje.