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Background: Haptic simulators for training surgeons often are informed by mechanical data that poorly represent the natural movement of a surgeon. Tissue testing often involves controlled robotic motion that does not match the freedom present during surgery. The aim of this study was to build and test a device surgeons could use to perform a discectomy procedure naturally while tracking force and position for eventual application in haptic surgical simulators. Methods: Two excised cadaveric lumbar spine segments were subjected to freehand mechanical testing. Two spine neurosurgeons performed a lumbar discectomy using a Depuy Synthes Concorde Clear MIS vacuum curette. The curette was attached to an Entact W3D device to track position and an ATI 6-axis load cell to track force. The surgeons performed multiple passes through the tissue while position and force were tracked to record the resistance of the tissue during testing. The resistance was measured by normalizing the force as the surgeon penetrated the tissue. The total resistance magnitude and resistances off-axis with respect to the tool were compared. Results: Successful testing was performed on all lumbar levels of both spines. Up to 30% of the total linear resistance was off-axis, with an average drop of 7% per 10 N of increasing force. Linear resistance normalized for speed was 0.31 (N.mm)/(mm/s). Statistically significant differences (p < 0.05) were found in linear resistance between surgeons. Conclusion: A significant percentage of the total resistance present during the discectomy was off-axis, meaning it would not have been captured by controlled robotic testing techniques. The amount of off-axis resistance varied with surgeon speed. These off-axis data are integral to the proper replication of surgery in a simulator and these observations expose limitations to the methods that are often used to capture resistance data for building haptic models. The resistances shown here were captured in a method that is more relevant to the operating room experience, which will allow for the development of more accurate training simulators.

Most haptic devices generate haptic sensation using mechanical actuators. However, the workload and limited workspace handicap the operator from operating freely. Electrical stimulation is an alternative approach to generate haptic sensations without using mechanical actuators. The light weight of the electrodes adhering to the body brings no limitations to free motion. Because a real haptic sensation consists of feelings from several areas, mounting the electrodes to several different body areas can make the sensations more realistic. However, simultaneously stimulating multiple electrodes may result in “noise” sensations. Moreover, the operators may feel tingling because of unstable stimulus signals when using the dry electrodes to help develop an easily mounted haptic device using electrical stimulation. In this study, we first determine the appropriate stimulation areas and stimulus signals to generate a real touch sensation on the forearm. Then, we propose a circuit design guideline for generating stable electrical stimulus signals using a voltage divider resistor. Finally, based on the aforementioned results, we develop a wearable haptic glove prototype. This haptic glove allows the user to experience the haptic sensations of touching objects with five different degrees of stiffness.

Traditional technologies for virtual reality (VR) and augmented reality (AR) create human experiences through visual and auditory stimuli that replicate sensations associated with the physical world. The most widespread VR and AR systems use head-mounted displays, accelerometers and loudspeakers as the basis for three-dimensional, computer-generated environments that can exist in isolation or as overlays on actual scenery. In comparison to the eyes and the ears, the skin is a relatively underexplored sensory interface for VR and AR technology that could, nevertheless, greatly enhance experiences at a qualitative level, with direct relevance in areas such as communications, entertainment and medicine 1 , 2 . Here we present a wireless, battery-free platform of electronic systems and haptic (that is, touch-based) interfaces capable of softly laminating onto the curved surfaces of the skin to communicate information via spatio-temporally programmable patterns of localized mechanical vibrations. We describe the materials, device structures, power delivery strategies and communication schemes that serve as the foundations for such platforms. The resulting technology creates many opportunities for use where the skin provides an electronically programmable communication and sensory input channel to the body, as demonstrated through applications in social media and personal engagement, prosthetic control and feedback, and gaming and entertainment. Interfaces for epidermal virtual reality technology are demonstrated that can communicate by programmable patterns of localized mechanical vibrations.

Tactile rendering has been implemented in digital musical instruments (DMIs) to offer the musician haptic feedback that enhances his/her music playing experience. Recently, this implementation has expanded to the development of sensory substitution systems known as haptic music players (HMPs) to give the opportunity of experiencing music through touch to the hearing impaired. These devices may also be conceived as vibrotactile music players to enrich music listening activities. In this review, technology and methods to render musical information by means of vibrotactile stimuli are systematically studied. The methodology used to find out relevant literature is first outlined, and a preliminary classification of musical haptics is proposed. A comparison between different technologies and methods for vibrotactile rendering is performed to later organize the information according to the type of HMP. Limitations and advantages are highlighted to find out opportunities for future research. Likewise, methods for music audio-tactile rendering (ATR) are analyzed and, finally, strategies to compose for the sense of touch are summarized. This review is intended for researchers in the fields of haptics, assistive technologies, music, psychology, and human–computer interaction as well as artists that may make use of it as a reference to develop upcoming research on HMPs and ATR.

We often interact with our environment through manual handling of objects and exploration of their properties. Object properties (OP), such as texture, stiffness, size, shape, temperature, weight, and orientation provide necessary information to successfully perform interactions. The human haptic perception system plays a key role in this. As virtual reality (VR) has been a growing field of interest with many applications, adding haptic feedback to virtual experiences is another step towards more realistic virtual interactions. However, integrating haptics in a realistic manner, requires complex technological solutions and actual user-testing in virtual environments (VEs) for verification. This review provides a comprehensive overview of recent wearable haptic devices (HDs) categorized by the OP exploration for which they have been verified in a VE. We found 13 studies which specifically addressed user-testing of wearable HDs in healthy subjects. We map and discuss the different technological solutions for different OP exploration which are useful for the design of future haptic object interactions in VR, and provide future recommendations.

In this study, we developed a new haptic–mixed reality intravenous (HMR-IV) needle insertion simulation system, providing a bimanual haptic interface integrated into a mixed reality system with programmable variabilities considering real clinical environments. The system was designed for nursing students or healthcare professionals to practice IV needle insertion into a virtual arm with unlimited attempts under various changing insertion conditions (e.g., skin: color, texture, stiffness, friction; vein: size, shape, location depth, stiffness, friction). To achieve accurate hand–eye coordination under dynamic mixed reality scenarios, two different haptic devices (Dexmo and Geomagic Touch) and a standalone mixed reality system (HoloLens 2) were integrated and synchronized through multistep calibration for different coordinate systems (real world, virtual world, mixed reality world, haptic interface world, HoloLens camera). In addition, force-profile-based haptic rendering proposed in this study was able to successfully mimic the real tactile feeling of IV needle insertion. Further, a global hand-tracking method, combining two depth sensors (HoloLens and Leap Motion), was developed to accurately track a haptic glove and simulate grasping a virtual hand with force feedback. We conducted an evaluation study with 20 participants (9 experts and 11 novices) to measure the usability of the HMR-IV simulation system with user performance under various insertion conditions. The quantitative results from our own metric and qualitative results from the NASA Task Load Index demonstrate the usability of our system.

Wearable haptic devices transmit information via touch receptors in the skin, yet devices located on parts of the body with high densities of receptors, such as fingertips and hands, impede interactions. Other locations that are well‐suited for wearables, such as the wrists and arms, suffer from lower perceptual sensitivity. The emergence of textile‐based wearable devices introduces new techniques of fabrication that can be leveraged to address these constraints and enable new modes of haptic interactions. This article formalizes the concept of “multiscale” interaction, an untapped paradigm for haptic wearables, enabling enhanced delivery of information via textile‐based haptic modules. In this approach, users choose the depth and detail of their haptic experiences by varying their interaction mode. Flexible prototyping methods enable multiscale haptic bands that provide both body‐scale interactions (on the forearm) and hand‐scale interactions (on the fingers and palm). A series of experiments assess participants’ ability to identify pressure states and spatial locations delivered by these bands across these interaction scales. A final experiment demonstrates the encoding of three‐bit information into prototypical multiscale interactions, showcasing the paradigm's efficacy. This research lays the groundwork for versatile haptic communication and wearable design, offering users the ability to select interaction modes for receiving information. Smart textile‐based haptic devices leverage dynamic haptic interaction strategies to encode information. Users choose the depth and detail of their haptic experiences at their own convenience by varying their interaction mode, either passively receiving body‐scale haptic cues on the forearm, or initiating hand‐scale interactions on the fingers and palm by actively touching the wearable device.

Polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA) is the most common, and because it is rather stiff and brittle, it is a little less forgiving when you are docking the haptics into the needles. While this has minimal impact on the final outcome, I've found the PMMA haptics easier to embed in the sclera and try to avoid large flanges with PVDF haptics that have a tendency to sit on the scleral surface underneath the conjunctiva. [...]I recommend monitoring the status of the retina with OCT to look for cystoid macular edema, especially if you are not achieving the postoperative vision that you expect.

Anxiety disorders affect approximately one third of people during their lifetimes and are the ninth leading cause of global disability. Current treatments focus on therapy and pharmacological interventions. However, therapy is costly and pharmacological interventions often have undesirable side-effects. Healthy people also regularly suffer periods of anxiety. Therefore, a non-pharmacological, intuitive, home intervention would be complementary to other treatments and beneficial for non-clinical groups. Existing at-home anxiety aids, such as guided meditations, typically employ visual and/or audio stimuli to guide the user into a calmer state. However, the tactile sense has the potential to be a more natural modality to target in an anxiety-calming device. The tactile domain is relatively under-explored, but we suggest that there are manifold physiological and affective qualities of touch that lend it to the task. In this study we demonstrate that haptic technology can offer an enjoyable, effective and widely accessible alternative for easing state anxiety. We describe a novel huggable haptic interface that pneumatically simulates slow breathing. We discuss the development of this interface through a focus group evaluating five prototypes with embedded behaviours (‘breathing’, ‘purring’, ‘heartbeat’ and ‘illumination’). Ratings indicated that the ‘breathing’ prototype was most pleasant to interact with and participants described this prototype as ‘calming’ and ‘soothing’, reminding them of a person breathing. This prototype was developed into an ergonomic huggable cushion containing a pneumatic chamber powered by an external pump allowing the cushion to ‘breathe’. A mixed-design experiment (n = 129) inducing anxiety through a group mathematics test found that the device was effective at reducing pre-test anxiety compared to a control (no intervention) condition and that this reduction in anxiety was indistinguishable from that of a guided meditation. Our findings highlight the efficacy of this interface, demonstrating that haptic technologies can be effective at easing anxiety. We suggest that the field should be explored in more depth to capture the nuances of different modalities in relation to specific situations and trait characteristics.