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The Bay of Pasaia is one of the highest heritage value portside cultural landscapes in the Basque Country, Spain. In order to understand the factors that have led to the current complex configuration, this study traces the historical development of this landscape. It analyzes economic and social dynamics that led to transformations of the historic areas, port, and natural environment, and documents the remaining historical traces and heritage elements that have resulted from this interaction in a GIS database. Following the recommendations of the HUL Approach and the Valletta Principles , three historical periods have been identified, which bear similarity with other port areas around the world. The results of this study are expected to serve as a basis for future urban regeneration plans and heritage enhancement strategies.

The discourse on disaster resilience and vulnerability entails diverse research and policy communities each assigning different meanings to the concepts, which in turn influences their measurement and implementation in decision-making contexts. This invited contribution introduces a themed section with five independently submitted papers on the broad topic of vulnerability and resilience. The distinctive geographical focus on the historical development of vulnerability and resilience and their contemporary manifestations is illustrated by the five internationally focused case studies presented in the themed section.

This paper is a tribute to researchers who have significantly contributed to improving and advancing structural equation modeling (SEM). It is, therefore, a brief overview of SEM and presents its beginnings, historical development, its usefulness in the social sciences and the statistical and philosophical (theoretical) controversies which have often appeared in the literature pertaining to SEM. Having described the essence of SEM in the context of causal analysis, the author discusses the years of the development of structural modeling as the consequence of many researchers’ systematically growing needs (in particular in the social sciences) who strove to effectively understand the structure and interactions of latent phenomena. The early beginnings of SEM models were related to the work of Spearman and Wright, and to that of other prominent researchers who contributed to SEM development. The importance and predominance of theoretical assumptions over technical issues for the successful construction of SEM models are also described. Then, controversies regarding the use of SEM in the social sciences are presented. Finally, the opportunities and threats of this type of analytical strategy as well as selected areas of SEM applications in the social sciences are discussed.

In this article, I inquire into Facebook’s development as a platform by situating it within the transformation of social network sites into social media platforms. I explore this shift with a historical perspective on, what I refer to as, platformization, or the rise of the platform as the dominant infrastructural and economic model of the social web and its consequences. Platformization entails the extension of social media platforms into the rest of the web and their drive to make external web data “platform ready.” The specific technological architecture and ontological distinctiveness of platforms will be examined by taking their programmability into account. I position platformization as a form of platform critique that inquires into the dynamics of the decentralization of platform features and the recentralization of “platform ready” data as a way to examine the consequences of the programmability of social media platforms for the web.

This article brings a historical perspective to explain the recent dissemination of randomized controlled trials (RCTs) as the new \"gold standard\" method to assess international development projects. Although the buzz around RCT evaluations dates from the 2000s, we show that what we are witnessing now is a second wave of RCTs, while a first wave began in the 1960s and ended by the early 1980s. Drawing on content analysis of 123 RCTs, participant observation, and secondary sources, we compare the two waves in terms of the participants in the network of expertise required to carry out field experiments and the characteristics of the projects evaluated. The comparison demonstrates that researchers in the second wave were better positioned to navigate the political difficulties caused by randomization. We explain the differences in the expertise network and in the type of projects as the result of concurrent transformations in the fields of development aid and the economics profession. We draw on Andrew Abbott's concept of \"hinges,\" as well as on Bourdieu's concept of \"homology\" between fields, to argue that the similar positions and parallel struggles conducted by two groups of actors in the two fields served as the basis for a cross-field alliance, in which RCTs could function as a \"hinge\" linking together the two fields.

  This study examines the phonology and historical development of the labialized dorsal consonants in Seri (Cmiique Iitom), a language of northwestern Mexico. This language has a rare contrast between velar and uvular fricatives, each with labialized counterparts, forming six voiceless dorsal phonemes. It is shown that labialized consonants originated historically through the loss of round vowels in three main contexts: posttonic syllable, the third person indirect object prefix, and the emphatic realis prefix. Phonetic phenomena such as anticipatory labialization and postlexical spread are presented in detail. The study also discusses the Seri orthography, which preserves distinctions critical to the language’s structure. Este estudio examina la fonología y el desarrollo histórico de las consonantes dorsales labializadas en el seri (cmiique iitom), una lengua del noroeste de México. Esta lengua presenta un contraste poco común entre fricativas velares y uvulares, cada una con su contraparte labializada, formando seis fonemas dorsales sordos. Se demuestra que las consonantes labializadas surgieron históricamente por la pérdida de vocales redondeadas en tres contextos principales: la sílaba postónica, el prefijo de objeto indirecto de tercera persona y el prefijo de realis enfático. Se presentan detalles fonéticos como la labialización anticipada y la propagación posléxica. Además, se analiza la ortografía del seri, que preserva distinciones críticas para la estructura del idioma.

As statisticians and scientists consider a world beyond p < 0.05, it is important to not lose sight of how we got to this point. Although significance testing and p-values are often presented as prescriptive procedures, they came about through a process of refinement and extension to other disciplines. Ronald A. Fisher and his contemporaries formalized these methods in the early twentieth century and Fisher's 1925 Statistical Methods for Research Workers brought the techniques to experimentalists in a variety of disciplines. Understanding how these methods arose, spread, and were argued over since then illuminates how p < 0.05 came to be a standard for scientific inference, the advantage it offered at the time, and how it was interpreted. This historical perspective can inform the work of statisticians today by encouraging thoughtful consideration of how their work, including proposed alternatives to the p-value, will be perceived and used by scientists. And it can engage students more fully and encourage critical thinking rather than rote applications of formulae. Incorporating history enables students, practitioners, and statisticians to treat the discipline as an ongoing endeavor, crafted by fallible humans, and provides a deeper understanding of the subject and its consequences for science and society.

Why does everyone think cities can save the planet? Contemporary planning interventions promise salvation via spatial fixes that might reduce carbon emissions, boost metropolitan economies, and allow urban society to thrive in spite of rising seas and climate disasters. New wetlands, floodgates, and other adaptive infrastructures allow water to coexist with urban space; new parks, such as New York’s High Line and Chicago’s 606, celebrate the interweaving of built and natural environments and suggest how outmoded infrastructure can be repurposed for civic benefit. While the climate dilemmas at hand are historically new, the use of landscaped environments in the service of solving social problems is not. Dating to the first generation of urban park development in the 19th century, planners have deployed green spaces as solutions to various cultural, political, and economic conundrums of the city. Offering an historical parallel and counterweight to investigations of contemporary urban–environmental dynamics, this paper investigates the period of park development that occurred in the 19th century in North America and Europe, using Chicago’s Olmsted-designed South Park (the contemporary Washington and Jackson Parks) as a case study. I argue that green spaces’ distinct nexus of (1) normative cultural meanings around nature, (2) power relations bound up in dominant landscape aesthetics, and (3) direct link to the economic realm via the structuring of land values have made green space development a powerful ‘cultural fix’: a means of using social space to mitigate perceived social crises. Understanding the historical foundations of green spaces’ use as cultural fixes can inform contemporary analyses, particularly as new landscape ideologies emerge as part of broader green urbanism development and climate change adaptation strategies. 为什么每个人都认为城市可以拯救地球？当代的规划干预措施通过空间修复来承诺拯救，这些修复可能会减少碳排放，推动大都市经济，并允许城市社会蓬勃发展，尽管海平面上升和气候灾难日益严重。新的湿地、洪水闸门和其他适应性基础设施使水能够与城市空间共存；纽约High Line和芝加哥606等新公园实现了建筑环境和自然环境的交融，并说明老旧的基础设施可以怎样为公民利益重新发挥作用。 虽然目前的气候困境是有史以来前所未有的，但在解决社会问题的过程中使用景观环境并不是什么新鲜事。早在十九世纪第一代城市公园建设过程中，规划者们已将绿色空间的部署视为各种城市文化、政治和经济难题的解决方案。本文在当代城市环境动态进行研究中引入类似的历史事件作为平衡因素。作者探讨了19世纪发生在北美和欧洲的公园建设时期，并采用奥姆斯特德设计的芝加哥南方公园（相当于当代的华盛顿公园和杰克逊公园） 作为案例研究。笔者认为，绿色空间的独特之处在于：（1）围绕自然的规范性文化含义，（2）与主导景观美学紧密相连的权力关系，以及（3）通过土地价值的结构与经济领域的直接联系。这些独特之处使得绿色空间的开发成为了一种强大的“文化修复”：一种利用社会空间来减轻对社会危机的感知的手段。 了解绿色空间作为文化修复的历史基础可以为当代分析提供启示，特别是考虑到，新的景观意识形态是作为更广泛的“绿色城市化发展”和“气候变化适应战略”的一部分涌现的。

Are differences in local banking development long lasting? Do they affect economic performance? I answer these questions by relying on a historical development that occurred in Italian cities during the Renaissance. A change in Catholic doctrine led to the development of modern banks in cities hosting Jewish communities. Using Jewish demography in 1500 as an instrument, I provide evidence of extraordinary persistence in the level of banking development across Italian cities and substantial effects of local banks on per capita income. Additional firm-level analyses suggest that banks exert large effects on aggregate productivity by reallocating resources toward more efficient firms.

The top 1 percent income share has more than doubled in the United States over the last 30 years, drawing much public attention in recent years. While other English-speaking countries have also experienced sharp increases in the top 1 percent income share, many high-income countries such as Japan, France, or Germany have seen much less increase in top income shares. Hence, the explanation cannot rely solely on forces common to advanced countries, such as the impact of new technologies and globalization on the supply and demand for skills. Moreover, the explanations have to accommodate the falls in top income shares earlier in the twentieth century experienced in virtually all high-income countries. We highlight four main factors. The first is the impact of tax policy, which has varied over time and differs across countries. Top tax rates have moved in the opposite direction from top income shares. The effects of top rate cuts can operate in conjunction with other mechanisms. The second factor is a richer view of the labor market, where we contrast the standard supply-side model with one where pay is determined by bargaining and the reactions to top rate cuts may lead simply to a redistribution of surplus. Indeed, top rate cuts may lead managerial energies to be diverted to increasing their remuneration at the expense of enterprise growth and employment. The third factor is capital income. Overall, private wealth (relative to income) has followed a U-shaped path over time, particularly in Europe, where inherited wealth is, in Europe if not in the United States, making a return. The fourth, little investigated, element is the correlation between earned income and capital income, which has substantially increased in recent decades in the United States.