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Sensors for safety and process control in hydrogen technologies
The use of hydrogen generated from renewable energy sources is expected to become an essential component of a low-carbon, environmentally friendly energy supply, spurring the worldwide development of hydrogen technologies. This title provides practical, expert-driven information on modern sensors for hydrogen and other gases as well as physical parameters essential for safety and process control in hydrogen technologies. It illustrates how sensing technologies can ensure the safe and efficient implementation of the emerging global hydrogen market.
Book
A Review of Fuel Cell Powertrains for Long-Haul Heavy-Duty Vehicles: Technology, Hydrogen, Energy and Thermal Management Solutions
Long-haul heavy-duty vehicles, including trucks and coaches, contribute to a substantial portion of the modern-day European carbon footprint and pose a major challenge in emissions reduction due to their energy-intensive usage. Depending on the hydrogen fuel source, the use of fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEV) for long-haul applications has shown significant potential in reducing road freight CO2 emissions until the possible maturity of future long-distance battery-electric mobility. Fuel cell heavy-duty (HD) propulsion presents some specific characteristics, advantages and operating constraints, along with the notable possibility of gains in powertrain efficiency and usability through improved system design and intelligent onboard energy and thermal management. This paper provides an overview of the FCEV powertrain topology suited for long-haul HD applications, their operating limitations, cooling requirements, waste heat recovery techniques, state-of-the-art in powertrain control, energy and thermal management strategies and over-the-air route data based predictive powertrain management including V2X connectivity. A case study simulation analysis of an HD 40-tonne FCEV truck is also presented, focusing on the comparison of powertrain losses and energy expenditures in different subsystems while running on VECTO Regional delivery and Longhaul cycles. The importance of hydrogen fuel production pathways, onboard storage approaches, refuelling and safety standards, and fleet management is also discussed. Through a comprehensive review of the H2 fuel cell powertrain technology, intelligent energy management, thermal management requirements and strategies, and challenges in hydrogen production, storage and refuelling, this article aims at helping stakeholders in the promotion and integration of H2 FCEV technology towards road freight decarbonisation.
Journal Article
Assessment of Hydrogen Storage and Pipelines for Hydrogen Farm
This paper presents a thorough initial evaluation of hydrogen gaseous storage and pipeline infrastructure, emphasizing health and safety protocols as well as capacity considerations pertinent to industrial applications. As hydrogen increasingly establishes itself as a vital energy vector within the transition towards low-carbon energy systems, the formulation of effective storage and transportation solutions becomes imperative. The investigation delves into the applications and technologies associated with hydrogen storage, specifically concentrating on compressed hydrogen gas storage, elucidating the principles underlying hydrogen compression and the diverse categories of hydrogen storage tanks, including pressure vessels specifically designed for gaseous hydrogen containment. Critical factors concerning hydrogen gas pipelines are scrutinized, accompanied by a review of appropriate compression apparatus, types of compressors, and particular pipeline specifications necessary for the transport of both hydrogen and oxygen generated by electrolysers. The significance of health and safety in hydrogen systems is underscored due to the flammable nature and high diffusivity of hydrogen. This paper defines the recommended health and safety protocols for hydrogen storage and pipeline operations, alongside exemplary practices for the effective implementation of these protocols across various storage and pipeline configurations. Moreover, it investigates the function of oxygen transport pipelines and the applications of oxygen produced from electrolysers, considering the interconnected safety standards governing hydrogen and oxygen infrastructure. The conclusions drawn from this study facilitate the advancement of secure and efficient hydrogen storage and pipeline systems, thereby furthering the overarching aim of scalable hydrogen energy deployment within both energy and industrial sectors.
Journal Article
Preliminary assessment of a hydrogen farm including health and safety and capacity needs
The safety engineering design of hydrogen systems and infrastructure, worker education and training, regulatory compliance, and engagement with other stakeholders are significant to the viability and public acceptance of hydrogen farms. The only way to ensure these are accomplished is for the field of hydrogen safety engineering (HSE) to grow and mature. HSE is described as the application of engineering and scientific principles to protect the environment, property, and human life from the harmful effects of hydrogen-related mishaps and accidents. This paper describes a whole hydrogen farm that produces hydrogen from seawater by alkaline and proton exchange membrane electrolysers, then details how the hydrogen gas will be used: some will be stored for use in a combined-cycle gas turbine, some will be transferred to a liquefaction plant, and the rest will be exported. Moreover, this paper describes the design framework and overview for ensuring hydrogen safety through these processes (production, transport, storage, and utilisation), which include legal requirements for hydrogen safety, safety management systems, and equipment for hydrogen safety. Hydrogen farms are large-scale facilities used to create, store, and distribute hydrogen, which is usually produced by electrolysis using renewable energy sources like wind or solar power. Since hydrogen is a vital energy carrier for industries, transportation, and power generation, these farms are crucial in assisting the global shift to clean energy. A versatile fuel with zero emissions at the point of use, hydrogen is essential for reaching climate objectives and decarbonising industries that are difficult to electrify. Safety is essential in hydrogen farms because hydrogen is extremely flammable, odourless, invisible, and also has a small molecular size, meaning it is prone to leaks, which, if not handled appropriately, might cause fires or explosions. To ensure the safe and dependable functioning of hydrogen production and storage systems, stringent safety procedures are required to safeguard employees, infrastructure, and the surrounding environment from any mishaps.
Journal Article
A Comprehensive Literature Review on Hydrogen Tanks: Storage, Safety, and Structural Integrity
In recent years, there has been a significant increase in research on hydrogen due to the urgent need to move away from carbon-intensive energy sources. This transition highlights the critical role of hydrogen storage technology, where hydrogen tanks are crucial for achieving cleaner energy solutions. This paper aims to provide a general overview of hydrogen treatment from a mechanical viewpoint, and to create a comprehensive review that integrates the concepts of hydrogen safety and storage. This study explores the potential of hydrogen applications as a clean energy alternative and their role in various sectors, including industry, automotive, aerospace, and marine fields. The review also discusses design technologies, safety measures, material improvements, social impacts, and the regulatory landscape of hydrogen storage tanks and safety technology. This work provides a historical literature review up to 2014 and a systematic literature review from 2014 to the present to fill the gap between hydrogen storage and safety. In particular, a fundamental feature of this work is leveraging systematic procedural techniques for performing an unbiased review study to offer a detailed analysis of contemporary advancements. This innovative approach differs significantly from conventional review methods, since it involves a replicable, scientific, and transparent process, which culminates in minimizing bias and allows for highlighting the fundamental issues about the topics of interest and the main conclusions of the experts in the field of reference. The systematic approach employed in the paper was used to analyze 55 scientific articles, resulting in the identification of six primary categories. The key findings of this review work underline the need for improved materials, enhanced safety protocols, and robust infrastructure to support hydrogen adoption. More importantly, one of the fundamental results of the present review analysis is pinpointing the central role that composite materials will play during the transition toward hydrogen applications based on thin-walled industrial vessels. Future research directions are also proposed in the paper, thereby emphasizing the importance of interdisciplinary collaboration to overcome existing challenges and facilitate the safe and efficient use of hydrogen.
Journal Article
Recent Progress in Hydrogen Flammability Prediction for the Safe Energy Systems
Many countries consider hydrogen as a promising energy source to resolve the energy challenges over the global climate change. However, the potential of hydrogen explosions remains a technical issue to embrace hydrogen as an alternate solution since the Hindenburg disaster occurred in 1937. To ascertain safe hydrogen energy systems including production, storage, and transportation, securing the knowledge concerning hydrogen flammability is essential. In this paper, we addressed a comprehensive review of the studies related to predicting hydrogen flammability by dividing them into three types: experimental, numerical, and analytical. While the earlier experimental studies had focused only on measuring limit concentration, recent studies clarified the extinction mechanism of a hydrogen flame. In numerical studies, the continued advances in computer performance enabled even multi-dimensional stretched flame analysis following one-dimensional planar flame analysis. The different extinction mechanisms depending on the Lewis number of each fuel type could be observed by these advanced simulations. Finally, historical attempts to predict the limit concentration by analytical modeling of flammability characteristics were discussed. Developing an accurate model to predict the flammability limit of various hydrogen mixtures is our remaining issue.
Journal Article
Numerical simulation study on hydrogen leakage and explosion of hydrogen fuel cell buses
This study explores the safety problems of hydrogen leakage and explosion in hydrogen fuel cell buses through Computational Fluid Dynamics simulations. The research investigates the diffusion behavior of hydrogen in the passenger cabin depending on the leakage position and flow rates, identifying a stratified, constant-concentration layer formed at the top of the cabin. Leakage near the rear wall of the vehicle provided the highest hydrogen concentration, while at higher flow rates, the diffusive process accelerated the spreading of flammable hydrogen concentrations. Hydrogen ignition simulations showed a fast internal pressure increase and secondary explosions outside the vehicle. Thermal hazards in the cases were higher than overpressure. The research’s additional analysis of ignition timing and source location shows that overpressure peaked initially with delayed ignition but declined afterward, while rear-ignited flames exhibited the farthest high-temperature hazard range at 10.88 m. These findings are fundamental for giving insight into hydrogen behavior in confined spaces and thus guiding risk assessment and emergency response planning for the development of safety protocols in hydrogen fuel cell buses, contributing to the safer implementation of hydrogen energy in public transportation.
Journal Article
Design of Long-Life Wireless Near-Field Hydrogen Gas Sensor
A compact wireless near-field hydrogen gas sensor is proposed, which detects leaking hydrogen near its source to achieve fast responses and high reliability. A semiconductor-type sensing element is implemented in the sensor, which can provide a significant response in 100 ms when stimulated by pure hydrogen. The overall response time is shortened by orders of magnitude compared to conventional sensors according to simulation results, which will be within 200 ms, compared with over 25 s for spatial concentration sensors under the worst conditions. Over 1 year maintenance intervals are enabled by wireless design based on the Bluetooth low energy protocol. The average energy consumption during a single alarm process is 153 μJ/s. The whole sensor is integrated on a 20 × 26 mm circuit board for compact use.
Journal Article
Review on the Hydrogen Dispersion and the Burning Behavior of Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles
The development of a hydrogen energy-based society is becoming the solution for more and more countries. Fuel cell electric vehicles are the best carriers for developing a hydrogen energy-based society. The current research on hydrogen leakage and the diffusion of fuel cell electric vehicles has been sufficient. However, the study of hydrogen safety has not reduced the safety concerns for society and government management departments, concerning the large-scale promotion of fuel cell electric vehicles. Hydrogen safety is both a technical and psychological issue. This paper aims to provide a comprehensive overview of fuel cell electric vehicles’ hydrogen dispersion and the burning behavior and introduce the relevant work of international standardization and global technical regulations. The CFD simulations in tunnels, underground car parks, and multistory car parks show that the hydrogen escape performance is excellent. At the same time, the research verifies that the flow, the direction of leakage, and the vehicle itself are the most critical factors affecting hydrogen distribution. The impact of the leakage location and leakage pore size is much smaller. The relevant studies also show that the risk is still controllable even if the hydrogen leakage rate is increased ten times the limit of GTR 13 to 1000 NL/min and then ignited. Multi-vehicle combustion tests of fuel cell electric vehicles showed that adjacent vehicles were not ignited by the hydrogen. This shows that as long as the appropriate measures are taken, the risk of a hydrogen leak or the combustion of fuel cell electric vehicles is controllable. The introduction of relevant standards and regulations also indirectly proves this point. This paper will provide product design guidelines for R&D personnel, offer the latest knowledge and guidance to the regulatory agencies, and increase the public’s acceptance of fuel cell electric vehicles.
Journal Article