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The Nuremberg military tribunals and the origins of international criminal law
2011
This book provides a comprehensive legal analysis of the twelve war crimes trials held in the American zone of occupation between 1946 and 1949, collectively known as the Nuremberg Military Tribunals (NMTs). The judgments the NMTs produced have played a critical role in the development of international criminal law, particularly in terms of how courts currently understand war crimes, crimes against humanity, and the crime of aggression. The trials are also of tremendous historical importance, because they provide a far more comprehensive picture of Nazi atrocities than their more famous predecessor, the International Military Tribunal at Nuremberg (IMT). The IMT focused exclusively on the ‘major war criminals’ — the Goerings, the Hesses, the Speers. The NMTs, by contrast, prosecuted doctors, lawyers, judges, industrialists, bankers — the private citizens and lower-level functionaries whose willingness to take part in the destruction of millions of innocents manifested what Hannah Arendt famously called ‘the banality of evil’. The book is divided into five sections. The first section traces the evolution of the twelve NMT trials. The second section discusses the law, procedure, and rules of evidence applied by the tribunals, with a focus on the important differences between Law No. 10 and the Nuremberg Charter. The third section, the heart of the book, provides a systematic analysis of the tribunals' jurisprudence. It covers Law No. 10's core crimes — crimes against peace, war crimes, and crimes against humanity — as well as the crimes of conspiracy and membership in a criminal organization. The fourth section then examines the modes of participation and defences that the tribunals recognized. The final section deals with sentencing, the aftermath of the trials, and their historical legacy.
Eliciting Expert Knowledge in Conservation Science
by
MCBRIDE, MARISSA
,
MARTIN, TARA G.
,
FIDLER, FIONA
in
Animal, plant and microbial ecology
,
Applied ecology
,
Bayesian priors
2012
Expert knowledge is used widely in the science and practice of conservation because of the complexity of problems, relative lack of data, and the imminent nature of many conservation decisions. Expert knowledge is substantive information on a particular topic that is not widely known by others. An expert is someone who holds this knowledge and who is often deferred to in its interpretation. We refer to predictions by experts of what may happen in a particular context as expert judgments. In general, an expert-elicitation approach consists of five steps: deciding how information will be used, determining what to elicit, designing the elicitation process, performing the elicitation, and translating the elicited information into quantitative statements that can be used in a model or directly to make decisions. This last step is known as encoding. Some of the considerations in eliciting expert knowledge include determining how to work with multiple experts and how to combine multiple judgments, minimizing bias in the elicited information, and verifying the accuracy of expert information. We highlight structured elicitation techniques that, if adopted, will improve the accuracy and information content of expert judgment and ensure uncertainty is captured accurately. We suggest four aspects of an expert elicitation exercise be examined to determine its comprehensiveness and effectiveness: study design and context, elicitation design, elicitation method, and elicitation output. Just as the reliability of empirical data depends on the rigor with which it was acquired so too does that of expert knowledge. El conocimiento de expertos es utilizado ampliamente en la ciencia y práctica de la conservación por la complejidad de los problemas, la falta relativa de datos y la naturaleza inminente de muchas decisiones de conservación. El conocimiento de expertos es información sustancial sobre un tópico particular que no es conocido ampliamente por otros. Un experto es alguien que tiene ese conocimiento y a quien se recurre a menudo para su interpretación. Nos referimos a las predicciones de expertos de lo que puede suceder en un contexto particular como juicio de expertos. En general, un método de obtención de expertos consiste en cinco pasos: decidir como se utilizará la información, determinar que se va a obtener, diseñar el proceso de obtención, llevar a cabo la obtención y traducir la información obtenida en datos cuantitativos que puedan ser utilizados directamente o en un modelo para tomar decisiones. Este último paso es conocido como codificación. Algunas de las consideraciones en la obtención de conocimiento de expertos incluyen determinar como trabajar con múltiples expertos y como combinar múltiples juicios, minimizando el sesgo en la información obtenida, y verificando la precisión de la información de expertos. Resaltamos técnicas estructuradas de obtención que, de ser adoptadas, mejorarán la precisión y contenido de información del juicio de expertos y asegurarán que la incertidumbre sea capturada con precisión. Sugerimos que se examinen cuatro aspectos de un ejercicio de obtención de expertos para determinar su amplitud y efectividad: estudiar el diseño y el contexto, diseño de la obtención, método de obtención y resultado de la obtención. Tal como la confiabilidad de los datos empíricos depende del rigor con que fueron obtenidos, también lo es para el conocimiento de expertos.
Journal Article
Evaluation of Teacher Digital Competence Frameworks Through Expert Judgement: the Use of the Expert Competence Coefficient
by
Romero-Tena, Rosalía
,
Cabero-Almenara, Julio
,
Palacios-Rodríguez, Antonio
in
Behavioral Objectives
,
Collaboration
,
Competencia digital
2020
In this paper, different proposals made by national and international organizations and institutions on Teacher Digital Literacy are taken into account. The 7 most commonly used competence frameworks in international contexts are presented for evaluation through expert judgment. Next, the most suitable for the subsequent realization of a t-MOOC on Teacher Digital Literacy was selected. The selection of these experts was based on seven criteria that helped to establish the expert knowledge coefficient (EKC). This strategy served to obtain the viability of the selected sample. A total of 412 people, 155 experts and 257 non-experts participated in this study. After conducting the expert judgment, in a single round, it was concluded that the European Framework of Digital Competence for Teachers DigCompEdu is the most valued and adequate to be used as reference for the formative t-MOOC, followed by INTEF. This result is logical, since the latter is inspired by the former. These findings do not question the validity of the other competency frameworks, but the preferences granted by the judges.
Journal Article
Tres sonetos epistemológicos
2023
Estas obras de creación literaria exploran, usando la forma del soneto, los problemas filosóficos de la justificación del conocimiento, de las bases del juicio y de la prevalencia de la duda. Aunque el tema tratado en los sonetos sea tradicionalmente serio, el modo en que se abordan esos problemas incluye el distanciamiento irónico y una presunta actitud ética de reconvención intelectual, articulada desde el humor.
Journal Article
Intrinsic judgment error in men’s championship world surf league: WSL 2021
by
Elsangedy, Hassan Mohamed
,
Brietzke, Cayque
,
Melo, Paulo Henrique
in
Correlation
,
Error Patterns
,
Fair game
2025
Introduction: Surfers’ performances are subjectively ranked by 5 judges. Low reliability and validity in judgment may lead to preventable errors and unfair scores. Objective: The aims of the present study is to describe the judgment error for each wave surfed in world surf league (WSL) championship tour of 2021, establish between-judge reliability, and establish judgment validity comparing each judge score with the final control score of the wave. Methodology: To describe the judgment error, we analyzed the available WSL data related to the 2021 Men’s Championship Tour (4,095 waves; 20,475 scores). Results: We found an inverted ‘U’-shaped pattern for the judgment error score vs. control score, explained by a quadratic regression model (R = 0.52; SEE = 0.10). The reliability produced an excellent intraclass correlation coefficient (CI95% = 0.97, 1.00), with a between judge (typical) error of 0.15. Validity analyses indicated a minimal real difference of 0.49 in the sum of two waves between the surfers for having 95% certainty for the heat winner. Conclusion: We recommend WSL incorporate intrinsic judgment errors to increase fairness and trust in the WSL championship tour.
Journal Article
Uses of empirical research in refocusing judicial reforms: lessons from five countries
2020
The article is a study of the inefficiency of theJudiciary in Latin America, and how, despite reform efforts, the problems of two decades ago persist. These problems have caused high levels of citizens’ distrust towards the Judiciary. The article aims to assess judicial reforms in Latin America, and propose new directions for future reform efforts.
Journal Article
La tutela de la libertad personal en los internamientos no voluntarios en centros geriátricos
2023
Desde hace años, se vienen denunciando graves irregularidades por la Fiscalía General del Estado, el Defensor del Pueblo, sus homólogos autonómicos y el propio Tribunal Constitucional en el ingreso de personas con discapacidad y dependientes en residencias, que están vulnerando su libertad personal, su derecho a la igualdad, al libre desarrollo de su personalidad y, en suma, a forjar libremente su destino vital.Este trabajo tiene por objeto estudiar, a la luz de la reforma introducida por la Ley 8/2021, de 2 de junio, los presupuestos objetivos y las garantías constitucionales y legales de los internamientos no voluntarios de las personas mayores en situación de dependencia en centros geriátricos, que tienen unas características específicas debido a la naturaleza de sus patologías y una gran incidencia social provocada por el fenómeno de la longevidad pluripatológica.El ingreso libre y voluntario en las residencias o geriátricos no plantea problemas jurídicos cuando el deterioro físico o la dependencia funcional del anciano no llevan aparejada una disminución de las facultades cognitivas, o cuando esta se produzca pueda ser compensada por el sistema de apoyos previsto en la Ley 8/2021, de modo que la decisión sea tomada libremente por la persona afectada, pero sí en dos supuestos en los que no se puede garantizar la autonomía de la voluntad del interesado: a) la demencia sobrevenida o la falta de capacidad sobrevenida se producen cuando el residente, fruto de una enfermedad senil crónica o degenerativa, pierde sus facultades intelectivas y volitivas y no puede decidir sobre su continuidad en el centro; y b) cuando se produce un internamiento de una persona que ya carece de la capacidad jurídica precisa para regir su propia vida y patrimonio.Adviértase que un geriátrico no es una unidad de salud metal, por lo que no serán objeto de estudio los problemas constitucionales que plantea el uso, en ocasiones necesario y proporcional, de los sistemas de contención mecánica y farmacológica en los ingresos no voluntarios en estos establecimientos sanitarios; ni tampoco se analizará la utilización de los mismos en los centros residenciales de mayores, a los que se refiere la Instrucción 1/2022, de la Fiscalía General del Estado.Finalmente, examinaremos en este trabajo las soluciones jurídico-constitucionales que se pueden arbitrar, en el marco de la Ley 8/2021, de 2 de junio, para «regularizar» los internamientos ilegales realizados, en unos casos, a causa del desconocimiento por parte de los responsables del geriátrico del procedimiento judicial previsto en la LEC; en otros, por la connivencia entre los directores de los centros residenciales y los familiares, pero en todos los casos la incuria de la Administración autonómica competente en la materia ha sido la colaboradora necesaria, al no haber efectuado los controles precisos para garantizar la libertad personal de los residentes. It should be noted that a nursing home is not a metal health unit, so the constitutional problems raised by the use, sometimes necessary and proportional, of mechanical and pharmacological restraint systems in non-voluntary admissions to these health facilities will not be the object of study; nor will the use of the same in residential centers for the elderly, referred to in Instruction 1/2022, of the State Attorney General’s Office, be analyzed.Finally, we will examine in this paper the legal-constitutional solutions that can be arbitrated, within the framework of Law 8/2021, of June 2, to «regularize» the illegal placements carried out, in some cases, due to the lack of knowledge on the part of those responsible for the nursing home of the judicial procedure foreseen in the LEC; in others, due to collusion between the directors of the residential centers and the family members, but in all cases the negligence of the autonomous Administration competent in the matter has been the necessary collaborator, not having carried out the necessary controls to guarantee the personal freedom of the residents.
Journal Article
Sachant que: un marqueur (plus ou moins juste) de mémoire sémantico-discursive
2024
A construction with epistemic value, sachant que is a discourse marker that covers both semantic-logical and discursive-argumentative values. Our paper sets out to follow the behaviour of this marker through a heterogeneous corpus, from the point of view of textual typology (literary texts, everyday discourse) but also in specialised language, and more specifically legal language (written and oral). The interest in analysing this marker lies in the fact that its uses, which are very frequent in contemporary French, tend to dilute its initial epistemic value, which refers to a known content shared by the enunciative instances. Our analysis follows the mechanism of weakening or maintaining the semantic and argumentative force of this discursive unit through various types of discourse, in order to identify the correct use of the word in appropriate contexts and with the appropriate meaning.
Construction à valeur épistémique, sachant que est un marqueur discursif qui recouvre tant des valeurs sémantico-logiques que des valeurs discursivo-argumentatives. Notre article se propose de suivre le comportement de ce marqueur à travers un corpus hétérogène du point de vue de la typologie textuelle (textes littéraires, de discours courant) mais aussi dans le langage de spécialité, surtout juridique (en format écrit et oral). L’intérêt de l’analyse de ce marqueur consiste dans le fait que ses emplois, très fréquents dans le français actuel, tendent à diluer la valeur épistémique initiale qui renvoie à un contenu connu partagé par les instances énonciatives. Nous voulons suivre le mécanisme d’affaiblissement ou le maintien de la force sémantique et argumentative de cette unité du discours dans les divers types de discours, afin d’identifier la justesse d’utilisation de la lexie dans des contextes appropriés et avec le sens adéquat.
Construcción con valor epistémico, sachant que es un marcador discursivo que abarca tanto valores semántico-lógicos como discursivo-argumentativos. Nuestro artículo se propone seguir el comportamiento de este marcador a través de un corpus heterogéneo desde el punto de vista de la tipología textual (textos literarios, de discurso corriente) pero también en el lenguaje jurídico (en formato escrito y oral). El interés de analizar este marcador reside en el hecho de que sus usos, muy frecuentes en el francés contemporáneo, tienden a diluir el valor epistémico inicial, que remite a un contenido conocido y compartido por las instancias enunciativas. Queremos seguir el mecanismo de debilitamiento o mantenimiento de la fuerza semántica y argumentativa de esta unidad discursiva en los distintos tipos de discurso, con el fin de identificar el uso correcto de la lexía en contextos apropiados y con el sentido adecuado.
Journal Article
Did Socrates intend to commit suicide? A rereading of the defense of Socrates in Xenophon's Apology
2024
In recent years, several commentators have argued that Socrates, at the time of his trial, intended to die, and that he therefore used megalêgoria (\"boasting\") to provoke his judges into condemning him to death. Contrary to this reading of the Apology, I shall endeavor to show that Socrates actually defends himself during his trial, and that the intention behind his choice of megalêgoria is not to provoke his judges into condemning him to death.
Journal Article
Doubt and suspension: Two attitudes or one?
2024
Are doubt and suspension of judgment similar attitudes? In the burgeoning literature on suspension of judgment, the notion of doubt is curiously absent. This paper aims to argue for the plausibility of an identity claim, which I term the “No-Difference View.” This view suggests that there is no substantial difference between being in doubt and suspending judgment. The argument will draw on historical and systematic considerations that support the No-Difference View as a plausible view within the logical space of positions.
Journal Article