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Various approaches have been proposed regarding the ways of analyzing anaphors that allow long-distance binding, apparently violating Binding Condition A. A question that needs to be answered by any such analysis is as follows: why do only some anaphors allow long-distance binding? This paper tries to answer this question under a recent approach to long-distance binding (Charnavel 2020a; b; Baker & Ikawa 2024), which I refer to as the null mediator approach, focusing on Japanese data. In Japanese, it is known that morphologically simplex anaphors permit long-distance binding whereas morphologically complex ones do not. I argue that the effect of morphological complexity on the availability of long-distance binding can be readily explained through the null mediator approach, once the internal structure of the anaphors and the Phase Impenetrability Condition from Chomsky (2001) are taken into account. This lends additional credence to the null mediator approach to long-distance binding. I further demonstrate that this proposal makes an accurate typological prediction with regard to the correlation between anaphor complexity and long-distance binding.

This paper discusses some aspects of the behavior of anaphors and pronouns in Liangmai, belonging to the Tibeto-Burman language family. W e show that Liangmai offers a unique combination of “reflexivization strategies”. Like other languages it exhibits the strategy of reflexivizing the predicate by reduplication of an anaphoric element, but it simultaneously marks the predicate with a self-element. Two more properties of anaphoric properties of Liangmai are interesting from a cross-linguistic perspective. It shows cases of “swapping” - reordering of differently case-marked elements within the complex anaphor - and long-distance binding - allowing an anaphoric element to refer to an element that is not a co-argument.

Cross-modal semantic priming and lexical judgment methods are adopted in this research to examine the cognitive process of the referent of Chinese reflexive ziji and the relationship between the two properties of \"local binding\" and \"long-distance binding\". It was found that there exist several temporal stages of the processing of ziji. At the early stage of sentence processing (SOA=0ms), ziji is bound to the embedded subject within the Governing Category, which is consistent with Binding Principle A. However, at the second stage (SOA=160ms), ziji is bound to the matrix subject, namely long-distance binding. As to the third stage (SOA=370ms), the difference of the binding relationships between ziji and the two alternative subjects is not prominent any more. Both kinds of subjects give rise to semantic priming to target words. It means that the syntactic analysis of sentence processing has been finished and the semantic integration stage begins. Adapted from the source document

This article focuses on the methodological challenges involved in investigating anaphoric binding in Norwegian as a second language. Norwegian anaphors can be bound both locally and non-locally, and since anaphors vary cross-linguistically, it is interesting to explore whether and where L2 speakers of Norwegian allow such target-like local and non-local binding in their L2. Sentences with two possible antecedents might be ambiguous for L2 speakers, and the truth-value judgment task is generally considered to be the best method for eliciting knowledge of L2 speakers' intuitions of anaphoric binding in ambiguous sentences. In Norwegian, long-distance binding cannot cross a finite clause boundary, and the long-distance anaphor cannot be locally bound. Because of this, the truth-value judgment task is sometimes less adequate for testing all relevant binding structures in Norwegian. Dialectal variations in Norwegian pose additional challenges for the study of the acquisition of anaphors in an L2. This paper discusses the implications of these methodological challenges.

Norwegian allows binding into finite subordinate clauses when the subordinate subject is inanimate and has a thematic role that is low on the hierarchy of thematic roles (e.g. Hun trodde hun gjorde det som var best for seg selv ‘she thought she did that which was best for refl self’). This kind of long distance binding is productive, and generally acceptable, but it has never been mentioned in the literature. This article discusses its syntactic and semantic properties. It is shown that the reflexives in question are not necessarily logophoric, and that they prefer a distributive interpretation. The general binding properties of inanimate subjects are discussed, and it is proposed that binding theory must have the option to disregard them. Binding across inanimate subjects can then be treated as local binding.

In recent years, studies have shed light on the physiological role of plant glutamate receptor-like channels (GLRs). However, the mechanism by which these channels are activated, and in particular, what is the physiological role of their binding to amino acids, remains elusive. The first direct biochemical demonstration that the Arabidopsis thaliana GLR3.3 isoform binds glutamate and other amino acids in a low micromolar range of concentrations was reported only recently. The first crystal structures of the ligand-binding domains of AtGLR3.3 and AtGLR3.2 isoforms also have been released. We foresee that these new experimental pieces of evidence provide the basis for a better understanding of how GLRs are activated and modulated in different physiological responses.

Cytokinins are phytohormones that induce cytokinesis and are essential for diverse developmental and physiological processes in plants. Cytokinins of the trans -zeatin type are mainly synthesized in root vasculature and transported to the shoot, where they regulate shoot growth. However, the mechanism of long-distance transport of cytokinin was hitherto unknown. Here, we report that the Arabidopsis ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporter subfamily G14 (AtABCG14) is mainly expressed in roots and plays a major role in delivering cytokinins to the shoot. Loss of AtABCG14 expression resulted in severe shoot growth retardation, which was rescued by exogenous trans -zeatin application. Cytokinin content was decreased in the shoots of atabcg14 plants and increased in the roots, with consistent changes in the expression of cytokinin-responsive genes. Grafting of atabcg14 scions onto wild-type rootstocks restored shoot growth, whereas wild-type scions grafted onto atabcg14 rootstocks exhibited shoot growth retardation similar to that of atabcg14 . Cytokinin concentrations in the xylem are reduced by ∼90% in the atabcg14 mutant. These results indicate that AtABCG14 is crucial for the translocation of cytokinin to the shoot. Our results provide molecular evidence for the long-distance transport of cytokinin and show that this transport is necessary for normal shoot development.

• Plant intracellular nucleotide-binding leucine-rich repeat (NLR) receptors play critical roles in mediating host immunity to pathogen attack. We use tomato Sw-5b::tospovirus as a model system to study the specific role of the compartmentalized plant NLR in dictating host defenses against the virus at different infection steps. • We demonstrated here that tomato NLR Sw-5b distributes to the cytoplasm and nucleus, respectively, to play different roles in inducing host resistances against tomato spotted wilt orthotospovirus (TSWV) infection. The cytoplasmic-enriched Sw-5b induces a strong cell death response to inhibit TSWV replication. This host response is, however, insufficient to block viral intercellular and long-distance movement. The nuclear-enriched Sw-5b triggers a host defense that weakly inhibits viral replication but strongly impedes virus intercellular and systemic movement. Furthermore, the cytoplasmic and nuclear Sw-5b act synergistically to dictate a full host defense of TSWV infection. • We further demonstrated that the extended N-terminal Solanaceae domain (SD) of Sw-5b plays critical roles in cytoplasm/nucleus partitioning. Sw-5b NLR controls its cytoplasm localization. Strikingly, the SD but not coil-coil domain is crucial for Sw-5b receptor to import into the nucleus to trigger the immunity. The SD was found to interact with importins. Silencing both importin α and β expression disrupted Sw-5b nucleus import and host immunity against TSWV systemic infection. • Collectively, our findings suggest that Sw-5b bifurcates disease resistances by cytoplasm/nucleus partitioning to block different infection steps of TSWV. The findings also identified a new regulatory role of extra domain of a plant NLR in mediating host innate immunity.

Reactive oxygen species (ROS) are important messengers in eukaryotic organisms, and their production is tightly controlled. Active extracellular ROS production by NADPH oxidases in plants is triggered by receptor-like protein kinase-dependent signaling networks. Here, we show that CYSTEINE-RICH RLK2 (CRK2) kinase activity is required for plant growth and CRK2 exists in a preformed complex with the NADPH oxidase RESPIRATORY BURST OXIDASE HOMOLOG D (RBOHD) in Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana). Functional CRK2 is required for the full elicitor-induced ROS burst, and consequently the crk2 mutant is impaired in defense against the bacterial pathogen Pseudomonas syringae pv tomato DC3000. Our work demonstrates that CRK2 regulates plant innate immunity. We identified in vitro CRK2-dependent phosphorylation sites in the C-terminal region of RBOHD. Phosphorylation of S703 RBOHD is enhanced upon flg22 treatment, and substitution of S703 with Ala reduced ROS production in Arabidopsis. Phylogenetic analysis suggests that phospho-sites in the C-terminal region of RBOHD are conserved throughout the plant lineage and between animals and plants. We propose that regulation of NADPH oxidase activity by phosphorylation of the C-terminal region might be an ancient mechanism and that CRK2 is an important element in regulating microbe-associated molecular pattern-triggered ROS production.