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Revisiting the Marshmallow Test: A Conceptual Replication Investigating Links Between Early Delay of Gratification and Later Outcomes
We replicated and extended Shoda, Mischel, and Peake’s (1990) famous marshmallow study, which showed strong bivariate correlations between a child’s ability to delay gratification just before entering school and both adolescent achievement and socioemotional behaviors. Concentrating on children whose mothers had not completed college, we found that an additional minute waited at age 4 predicted a gain of approximately one tenth of a standard deviation in achievement at age 15. But this bivariate correlation was only half the size of those reported in the original studies and was reduced by two thirds in the presence of controls for family background, early cognitive ability, and the home environment. Most of the variation in adolescent achievement came from being able to wait at least 20 s. Associations between delay time and measures of behavioral outcomes at age 15 were much smaller and rarely statistically significant.
Journal Article
Chubby Bunny
Barbara \"Bunny\" Binks comes from a long line of Barbaras, that started with her mother and grandmother. She loves putting her hair up in \"bunny buns,\" playing with her rabbit Ralph, and eating marshmallows. Then one day, she participates in her favorite marshmallow eating contest at field day called \"Chubby Bunny,\" and her classmates start teasing her. But with a little help from her grandma Barbara, Bunny figures out a very sweet solution.
Book
Same Data Set, Different Conclusions
One simple marshmallow test in preschool children predicts an array of important life outcomes, according to multiple studies spanning several decades. However, a recent conceptual replication casts doubt on these famous findings. We conducted an independent, preregistered secondary analysis to test whether previously observed longitudinal associations between preschool delay of gratification and adolescent outcomes would be conceptually replicated. Associations were significant for three of the five outcomes we tested using the analytic approach employed in the original studies of the marshmallow test. Relationships between delay of gratification and problem behavior held in bivariate, multivariate, and multilevel models; in contrast, no significant relationships between delay and problem behavior were found in the other recent replication, even though both studies used the same data set. These relationships were better explained by social support than by self-control, suggesting that the marshmallow test is predictive because it reflects aspects of a child’s early environment that are important over the long term. This novel interpretation of the classic findings points to new directions for intervention.
Journal Article
Anti-inflammatory and Anti-oxidative Effects of Phytohustil® and Root Extract of Althaea officinalis L. on Macrophages in vitro
The medicinal plant marshmallow
L. (
), is used for the treatment of cough since centuries. Application of medicinal extracts of marshmallow roots shows immediate effects like a protective film on the inflamed mucosa. Because the soothing layer reduce irritation of the mucous system, a faster regeneration is supported by defense mechanisms required to protect the respiratory tract from environmental injury. Macrophages (MΦ), which belong to a group of multipurpose defensive cells, provide the first line of defense against mucosal invasive pathogens. The present study was performed to investigate, whether the herbal medicinal product has anti-inflammatory or anti-oxidative effects on pro-inflammatorily activated MΦ or after oxidative stress induction. Special attention should be payed to elucidate the effects of
on the mechanism of intracellular defense as well as on migratory capacity of the MΦ.
Treatment of PMA-differentiated human THP-1 MΦ with Phytohustil
increased their viability without affecting the cell number. Phytohustil
or root extracts of
(REAo) - an active component of Phytohustil
- were able to protect human MΦ against H
O
-induced cytotoxicity and H
O
-induced ROS production. Phytohustil
, REAo or diclofenac used as anti-inflammatory reference substance, inhibited the LPS-induced release of tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α) as well as of IL6 in MΦ. Treatment with Phytohustil
, its excipients or REAo did not impair the mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP). Finally, Phytohustil
and REAo activated the migratory capacity of MΦ.
The present
investigations indicate protective, i.e., anti-oxidative and anti-inflammatory effects of REAo and Phytohustil
, additionally improving the migratory capacity of MΦ. These antiinflammatory effects were similar or even better than diclofenac. Thus, our data support and may explain the positive effect of Phytohustil
observed in patients during the therapy of inflamed buccal mucosal membranes or treatment of cough.
Journal Article
Does promising facilitate children’s delay of gratification in interdependent contexts?
For cooperation to succeed, individuals must often ‘delay gratification’ and forego an immediate reward for a larger delayed reward that is co-produced through the cooperative act. This experiment asked whether a promise to wait increased children’s propensity to coordinate with their partner by waiting to eat their own treat. In this first cooperative marshmallow test conducted online, 5- to 6-year-old UK-based children ( n = 66) interacted from their homes via video call with a confederate child who either promised not to eat his treat (promise condition) or expressed the possibility that he might eat his treat (social risk condition). Across the full dataset and a reduced dataset in which participants were not accidentally interrupted during the task ( n = 48), children in the promise condition waited longer to eat their treat than children in the social risk condition. Younger children, but not older children, also successfully delayed gratification more often in the promise condition than in the social risk condition. Thus, even when communication is one-sided in an interdependent marshmallow task, explicit promises can support children’s motivation to delay gratification relative to explicit uncertainty.
Journal Article
Use of Gardening Programs as an Intervention to Increase Children’s Ability to Delay Gratification
The purpose of this study was to examine the ability of preschool gardening programs to help children develop their ability to delay gratification. Children today face many opportunities for instant gratification, although the ability to delay gratification in early childhood has been linked to numerous benefits later in life. Opportunities to train children in the ability to delay gratification present educational challenges, in that it competes with other academic training needs, and it can be difficult to find programs that are interesting to young children. The population for this study was preschool children ranging in age from 2 to 6 years, with treatment and control groups drawn from different schools. Participants were tested individually and timed to determine their ability to delay gratification, with promises of larger rewards if the child could wait for 15 minutes. The results of this study did not identify a significant change in all children’s ability to delay gratification after a gardening program. However, analyses showed that females appear to have responded more positively to the gardening treatment in their ability to delay gratification, whereas males in the control group benefited more from traditional school lessons.
Journal Article
Protective effects of ginger and marshmallow extracts on indomethacin-induced peptic ulcer in rats
Background: Gastric ulcer is one of the most serious diseases. Most classic treatment lines produce adverse drug reactions. Therefore, this study aimed to investigate the protective effects of two natural extracts, namely ginger and marshmallow extracts, on indomethacin-induced gastric ulcer in rats. Materials and Methods: Animals were divided into five groups; a normal control group, an ulcer control group, and three treatment groups receiving famotidine (20 mg/kg), ginger (100 mg/kg), and marshmallow (100 mg/kg). Treatments were given orally on a daily basis for 14 days prior to a single intra-peritoneal administration of indomethacin (20 mg/kg). Results: Indomethacin administration resulted in significant ulcerogenic effect evidenced by significant elevations in ulcer number, ulcer index, and blood superoxide dismutase activity accompanied by significant decreases in gastric mucosal nitric oxide and glutathione levels. In addition, elevations in gastric mucosal lipid peroxides and histamine content were observed. Alternatively, pretreatment with famotidine, ginger or marshmallow significantly corrected macroscopic and biochemical findings, supported microscopically by results of histopathological study. Conclusion: These results demonstrate that administration of either ginger or marshmallow extract could protect against indomethacin-induced peptic ulcer in rats presumably via their antioxidant properties and inhibition of histamine release.
Journal Article
Phytohustil® and root extract of Althaea officinalis L. exert anti-inflammatory and anti-oxidative properties and improve the migratory capacity of endothelial cells in vitro
Introduction: Althaea officinalis L.'s root extract (REA) has been used as a medicinal plant since ancient times to treat a cough. Applying REA leads to a protective film that induces a faster regeneration of the lesioned laryngopharyngeal mucosa caused by dry coughs. The buccopharyngeal mucosa is a highly vascularized tissue. In this regard, anti-inflammatory/-oxidant phytochemicals that improve the repair of the lesion site, e.g., neovascularization in the wound, are critical for promoting healing. For this reason, it is essential to investigate the effects of Phytohustil ® and REA on different cellular components of the mucosa under conditions similar to those found in the injured mucosa. Thus, this in vitro study investigated the anti-inflammatory/oxidative and pro-migratory properties of Phytohustil ® cough syrup on vascular endothelial cells. Methods: Human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVEC) were pretreated (24 h) with Phytohustil ® , its excipients, or REA, followed by incubation with hydrogen peroxide (H 2 O 2 ; 1 h; pro-oxidative) or with lipopolysaccharides (LPS; 3 h; pro-inflammatory). Viability and cytotoxicity were measured by PrestoBlue ® assay. Intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) were quantified with 20-70-dichlorofluorescein diacetate (DCFDA). The release of interleukin 6 (IL6) was determined by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). The migratory capacity of HUVEC was measured using a scratch assay. Results: Our results show that Phytohustil ® , its excipients and REA were not cytotoxic. Pretreatment of HUVEC (24 h) with Phytohustil ® or REA inhibited the LPS-activated IL6 release. Phytohustil ® or REA inhibited the H 2 O 2 -induced cytotoxicity and intracellular ROS production. Phytohustil ® and REA significantly stimulated wound closure compared to the control. Conclusion: Our data show that Phytohustil ® and REA have anti-inflammatory/-oxidant properties and improve the migratory capacity of vascular endothelial cells. These properties may contribute to the healing characteristics of Phytohustil ® and support the benefit of Phytohustil ® in patient’s treatment of irritated oral mucosa.
Journal Article
Evaluation of the Chemical and Sensory Composition of a Marshmallow Product Enriched with Tomato Pomace Powder (Lycopersicon esculentum)
This study evaluated the physicochemical, antioxidant, and sensory properties of marshmallows enriched with tomato pomace (Lycopersicon esculentum), a by-product rich in fiber and bioactive compounds. Formulations with 0–6% pomace (Control, P1–P3) were analyzed during 20 days of storage. Tomato pomace addition increased crude fiber (from 0.00% to 0.42%) and protein (from 4.62% to 7.05%), while lipid and ash contents remained low (<0.15% and <0.90%, respectively). Carbohydrates ranged around 57–64 g/100 g, resulting in energy values near 270 kcal/100 g. Antioxidant activity (DPPH) increased from 34% in the control to 44% in enriched samples, confirming the contribution of polyphenols and carotenoids. Sensory evaluation (n = 20, 10-point scale) showed good overall acceptability, with enriched samples maintaining color and texture during storage. The results demonstrate that tomato pomace enhances the nutritional and antioxidant profile of marshmallows without negatively affecting sensory quality, supporting its use as a functional ingredient in confectionery formulations.
Journal Article