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Meat represents an important protein source, even in developing countries, but its production is scarcely sustainable, and its excessive consumption poses health issues. An increasing number of Western consumers would replace, at least partially, meat with alternative protein sources. This review aims at: (i) depicting nutritional, functional, sensory traits, and critical issues of single-cell proteins (SCP), filamentous fungi, microalgae, vegetables (alone or mixed with milk), and insects and (ii) displaying how fermentation could improve their quality, to facilitate their use as food items/ingredients/supplements. Production of SCP (yeasts, filamentous fungi, microalgae) does not need arable land and potable water and can run continuously, also using wastes and byproducts. Some filamentous fungi are also consumed as edible mushrooms, and others are involved in the fermentation of traditional vegetable-based foods. Cereals, pseudocereals, and legumes may be combined to offer an almost complete amino acid profile. Fermentation of such vegetables, even in combination with milk-based products (e.g., tarhana), could increase nutrient concentrations, including essential amino acids, and improve sensory traits. Different insects could be used, as such or, to increase their acceptability, as ingredient of foods (e.g., pasta). However, insects as a protein source face with safety concerns, cultural constraints, and a lack of international regulatory framework.

Current environmental and health concerns encourage a shift towards more sustainable diets. A variety of options are currently being investigated to achieve the food security of alternative-to-meat dietary proteins. The food security of alternative to meat proteins will require attention to the availability, the access, the supply stability and the food safety and quality. The aim of this research is to get insight on consumers’ food attitudes in order to achieve food security of four alternatives to meat proteins, namely, plant-based proteins, mycoproteins, cultured meat proteins and insect proteins in different development contexts in Spain and the Dominican Republic. In doing so, the research analyses meat consumption, reduces consumers’ attitudes using a principal component analysis, predicts first adopters of alternative dietary proteins using a Chi-square test and ranks preferred alternative dietary proteins using a multicriteria decision-making method. The results show that plant-based proteins are the best positioned alternative, while insects are the worst positioned in the Dominican Republic. Gender and education in the Dominican Republic and gender, education and age in Spain are significant factors for the adoption of alternative to meat proteins. Health and convenience attitudes may determine the adoption of alternative dietary proteins in Spain and the Dominican Republic. This research contributes to identifying the consumers’ attitudes to encourage the dietary shift to alternative to meat proteins. It can help industry to market alternative-to-meat proteins in different development contexts to achieve food security.

Demand for plant-based meat substitutes is growing globally for nutritional and environmental reasons, with Australia the third-fastest growing vegan market worldwide. This study aimed to profile and compare plant-based meat substitutes (mimicking meat) with equivalent meat products, and 2015 data. An audit undertaken in May (updated in September 2019) from four metropolitan Sydney supermarkets (Coles, Woolworths, Aldi, IGA), collected nutrition information and Health Star Rating (HSR) from 137 products (50 burgers, 10 mince, 29 sausages, 24 chicken, 9 seafood, 15 other). Mean (± standard deviation (SD)) and median (range) was calculated for nutrients and HSR. Plant-based options were generally lower in kilojoules, total and saturated fat, higher in carbohydrate, sugars, and dietary fibre compared with meat. Only 4% of products were low in sodium (58–1200 mg/100 g). Less than a quarter of products (24%) were fortified with vitamin B12, 20% with iron, and 18% with zinc. HSR featured on 46% (3.6–4.4 stars). On-pack claims were vegetarian/vegan/plant-based (80%), protein (63%), non-genetically modified/organic (34%), gluten free (28%). Product numbers increased five-fold (↑429%) in four years. The plant protein trend has prompted innovation in meat substitutes, however wide nutrient ranges and higher sodium levels highlights the importance of nutrition guidelines in their development to ensure equivalence with animal-based proteins.

In recent decades, the demand, supply, and consumption of plant-based (pb) alternative products have increased worldwide. The objective of this study was to characterize pb meat and cheese products and compare them with their respective animal-based products. Data were collected in online market analyses (2019/2021). Nutritional data, Nutri-Score, and analysis of micronutrients are presented in this article. The number of products has grown in all categories, with the largest increase of 110% in pb cheese. The main protein sources in pb meat were soy and wheat, followed by an increasing use of peas. Pb meat generally contained less energy and total and saturated fat, but more carbohydrates and sugars than meat. In pb cheese, the protein content was lower than that of cheese. In 3 of 17 food groups, the salt content of pb alternatives was lower than in animal products. The daily requirement for iron could be covered better by pb alternatives than previously anticipated as well as the need for the vitamins E and K. The calculated Nutri-Score was generally lower for pb meat and higher for pb cheese than for the respective animal products. The trend towards consumption of pb alternative products is increasing, but the high level of processing, wide range of nutrients, and high salt content indicate the need for nutritional guidelines for these products.

The processed meats are classified in the first category of carcinogenic compounds due to its numerous health issues. For this reason, there is a growing interest to utilize healthy ingredients for formulation of meat-based products. The objective of this study was to replace completely and partially meat by plant proteins in sausage formulation and compare the characteristics of these novel formulae with full meat sample. The results showed that the plant proteins minimized the cooking loss and shrinkage and improved emulsion stability by creating a strong structural network in cooked emulsion. In contrast, the full meat samples had better strength/elasticity in terms of folding score (4.67 out of 5) and gel strength (2553.68 g mm) when compared to meat-reduced and meat-free samples. The sensory assessment showed that replacement of chicken meat by plant proteins was highly acceptable in terms of texture, odor, color and overall acceptance. Overall, it is concluded that plant proteins can be regarded as promising ingredients to replace 80–100% meat in sausage.

Increasing concerns for climate change call for radical changes in food systems. There is a need to pay more attention to the entangled changes in technological development, food production, as well as consumption and consumer demand. Consumer and market interest in alternative meat and milk products—such as plant based milk, plant protein products and cultured meat and milk—is increasing. At the same time, statistics do not show a decrease in meat consumption. Yet alternatives have been suggested to have great transitional potential, appealing to different consumer segments, diets, and identities. We review 123 social scientific journal articles on cell-based and plant-based meat and milk alternatives to understand how the positioning of alternatives as both same and different in relation to animal-based products influences their role within the protein transition. We position the existing literature into three themes: (1) promissory narratives and tensions on markets, (2) consumer preferences, attitudes, and behavioral change policies, (3) and the politics and ethics of the alternatives. Based on our analysis of the literature, we suggest that more research is needed to understand the broader ethical impacts of the re-imagination of the food system inherent in meat and milk alternatives. There is also a need to direct more attention to the impacts of meat and milk alternatives to the practices of agricultural practices and food production at the farm-level. A closer examination of these research gaps can contribute to a better understanding of the transformative potential of alternatives on a systemic level.

Over the past decade, there has been growing interest in the development and production of plant-based and cell-based alternatives to farmed meat. Although promoted for their capacity to avoid or reduce the environmental, animal welfare, and, in some cases, public health problems associated with farmed meat production and consumption, little research has critically evaluated the broader potential public health and food systems implications associated with meat alternatives. This review explores key public health, environmental, animal welfare, economic, and policy implications related to the production and consumption of plant-based meat substitutes and cell-based meats, and how they compare to those associated with farmed meat production. Based on the limited evidence to date, it is unknown whether replacing farmed meats with plant-based substitutes would offer comparable nutritional or chronic disease reduction benefits as replacing meats with whole legumes. Production of plant-based substitutes, however, may involve smaller environmental impacts compared to the production of farmed meats, though the relative impacts differ significantly depending on the type of products under comparison. Research to date suggests that many of the purported environmental and health benefits of cell-based meat are largely speculative. Demand for both plant-based substitutes and cell-based meats may significantly reduce dependence on livestock to be raised and slaughtered for meat production, although cell-based meats will require further technological developments to completely remove animal-based inputs. The broader socioeconomic and political implications of replacing farmed meat with meat alternatives merit further research. An additional factor to consider is that much of the existing research on plant-based substitutes and cell-based meats has been funded or commissioned by companies developing these products, or by other organizations promoting these products. This review has revealed a number of research gaps that merit further exploration, ideally with independently funded peer-reviewed studies, to further inform the conversation around the development and commercialization of plant-based substitutes and cell-based meats.

Barley, primarily used for malting and animal feed, holds untapped potential as a human food source. Plant-based meat analogues, aimed at mimicking attributes of animal meats, typically rely on refined ingredients like soy protein or wheat gluten. To address ingredient sustainability and diversification in the plant-based food sector, this study used protein-enriched ingredients from two dry-fractionated barley varieties. Blends of pea protein and protein-enriched barley flour from two varieties (CDC Austenson and CDC Valdres) were extruded under high moisture conditions. The effects of two barley inclusion levels (15 and 30% w/w) and three feed moisture levels (47.5, 52.5, and 57.5% wb) were investigated on meat analogue’s physical and techno-functional properties. Barley’s inclusion led to texturized meat analogues with sufficiently fibrous characteristics and texture comparable with recent studies on meat analogues. Meat analogues containing 15% of protein-enriched barley flour from CDC Austenson and processed at 57.5% feed moisture had the highest anisotropy index (1.57). An increase in barley inclusion in the formulation led to an increase in the hardness, gumminess, and chewiness of the meat analogues. However, increasing moisture content led to a decrease in hardness, gumminess, chewiness, density, and color change. In terms of techno-functionality, extrusion led to a reduction in the water and oil holding capacities of the meat analogues compared to the raw formulations. In conclusion, the study demonstrated the effective inclusion of protein-enriched barley flours as ingredients for high moisture meat analogues. Findings are expected to encourage the usage of barley in human food applications and promote ingredient diversification.

Limpet, Patella vulgata is an underutilized gastropod mollusc. In this study, the nutritional and techno-functional properties of limpets, found attached to rocks on the shores of Cornwall, Wales and Scotland were explored for the first time. P. vulgata flesh had a high percentage of protein (15%) with a well-balanced amino acid composition. Fat content was about 3%, comprising saturated fatty acids (SFAs), monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFAs) and polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) in the ratio of 1:1:2. SDS-PAGE characterisation showed the main myofibrillar and sarcoplasmic protein bands from limpet flesh. More importantly, our study showed that limpet had good gelling properties with a high elastic modulus (Gʹ) of 50.79 kPa and a low gelation temperature of 55.7 o C. The limpet protein can therefore be used in a food system together with tapioca starch (TS) and whey protein isolate (WPI) to improve the gel texture via various interactions with other components in the food model systems. Our study highlighted that the addition of limpet protein improved the rheological properties and gel strength of the TS and WPI-based composite gel. The present study clearly indicated that limpet, an underutilized shellfish source can benefit the food industry to make novel products and provide alternative diets such as meat free food.

Plant-based (PB) meat alternatives are developing due to the consumer’s demand, especially those who are mainly health-concerned. Soy proteins (SP) are commonly used as the main ingredients for PB meat analogues; however, SP may have adverse effects on the cognitive function and mood of humans. This study aimed to use grey oyster mushroom (GOM) and chickpea flour (CF) as an alternative source of SP to prepare emulsion-type sausages (ES). The effect of different hydrocolloids and oil on the quality of sausage was also investigated. The sausage was prepared using different concentrations of GOM and CF (20:20, 25:15, and 30:10 w/w). The GOM to CF ratio 25:15 was selected for the ES based on protein content, textural properties, and sensory attributes. The result indicated that sausage containing konjac powder (KP) and rice bran oil (RBO) provided a better texture and consumer acceptability. The final product showed higher protein (36%, dry basis), less cooking loss (4.08%), purge loss (3.45%), higher emulsion stability, and better consumer acceptability than the commercial sausage. The best recipe for mushroom-based ES is 25% GOM, 15% CF, 5% KP, and 5% RBO. In addition, GOM and CF could be an alternative option to replace SP in PB meat products.