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Microplastic pollution is becoming a major issue for human health due to the recent discovery of microplastics in most ecosystems. Here, we review the sources, formation, occurrence, toxicity and remediation methods of microplastics. We distinguish ocean-based and land-based sources of microplastics. Microplastics have been found in biological samples such as faeces, sputum, saliva, blood and placenta. Cancer, intestinal, pulmonary, cardiovascular, infectious and inflammatory diseases are induced or mediated by microplastics. Microplastic exposure during pregnancy and maternal period is also discussed. Remediation methods include coagulation, membrane bioreactors, sand filtration, adsorption, photocatalytic degradation, electrocoagulation and magnetic separation. Control strategies comprise reducing plastic usage, behavioural change, and using biodegradable plastics. Global plastic production has risen dramatically over the past 70 years to reach 359 million tonnes. China is the world's top producer, contributing 17.5% to global production, while Turkey generates the most plastic waste in the Mediterranean region, at 144 tonnes per day. Microplastics comprise 75% of marine waste, with land-based sources responsible for 80–90% of pollution, while ocean-based sources account for only 10–20%. Microplastics induce toxic effects on humans and animals, such as cytotoxicity, immune response, oxidative stress, barrier attributes, and genotoxicity, even at minimal dosages of 10 μg/mL. Ingestion of microplastics by marine animals results in alterations in gastrointestinal tract physiology, immune system depression, oxidative stress, cytotoxicity, differential gene expression, and growth inhibition. Furthermore, bioaccumulation of microplastics in the tissues of aquatic organisms can have adverse effects on the aquatic ecosystem, with potential transmission of microplastics to humans and birds. Changing individual behaviours and governmental actions, such as implementing bans, taxes, or pricing on plastic carrier bags, has significantly reduced plastic consumption to 8–85% in various countries worldwide. The microplastic minimisation approach follows an upside-down pyramid, starting with prevention, followed by reducing, reusing, recycling, recovering, and ending with disposal as the least preferable option.

Given the global abundance and environmental persistence, exposure of humans and (aquatic) animals to micro- and nanoplastics is unavoidable. Current evidence indicates that micro- and nanoplastics can be taken up by aquatic organism as well as by mammals. Upon uptake, micro- and nanoplastics can reach the brain, although there is limited information regarding the number of particles that reaches the brain and the potential neurotoxicity of these small plastic particles. Earlier studies indicated that metal and metal-oxide nanoparticles, such as gold (Au) and titanium dioxide (TiO 2 ) nanoparticles, can also reach the brain to exert a range of neurotoxic effects. Given the similarities between these chemically inert metal(oxide) nanoparticles and plastic particles, this review aims to provide an overview of the reported neurotoxic effects of micro- and nanoplastics in different species and in vitro. The combined data, although fragmentary, indicate that exposure to micro- and nanoplastics can induce oxidative stress, potentially resulting in cellular damage and an increased vulnerability to develop neuronal disorders. Additionally, exposure to micro- and nanoplastics can result in inhibition of acetylcholinesterase activity and altered neurotransmitter levels, which both may contribute to the reported behavioral changes. Currently, a systematic comparison of the neurotoxic effects of different particle types, shapes, sizes at different exposure concentrations and durations is lacking, but urgently needed to further elucidate the neurotoxic hazard and risk of exposure to micro- and nanoplastics.

Microplastics (MPs) have become a major global environmental problem due to their accelerated distribution throughout different environments. Their widespread presence is a potential threat to the ecosystems because they alter the natural interaction among their constituent elements. MPs are considered as emergent pollutants due to the huge amount existing in the environment and by the toxic effects they can cause in living beings. The removal of MPs from water bodies and wastewaters is a control strategy that needs to be implemented from the present on and strictly constantly in the near future to control and mitigate their distribution into other environments. The present work shows a detailed comparison of the current potential technologies for the remediation of the MPs pollution. That is, physical, biological, and chemical methods for the removal of MPs from water bodies and wastewaters. Focusing mainly on the discussion of the perspective on the current innovative technologies for the removal or degradation of the MPs, rather than in a deep technical discussion of the methodologies. The selected novel physical methods discussed are adsorption, ultrafiltration, dynamic membranes and flotation. The physical methods are used to modify the physical properties of the MPs particles to facilitate their removal. The biological methods for the removal of MPs are based on the use of different bacterial strains, worms, mollusks or fungus to degrade MPs particles due to the hydrocarbon chain decrease of the particles, because these kinds of microorganisms feed on these organic chains. The degradation of MPs in water bodies and wastewaters by chemical methods is focusing on coagulation, electrocoagulation, photocatalysis, and ozonation. Chemical methods achieve the degradation of MPs by the modification of the chemical structure of the particles either by the change of the surface of the particles or by attacking radicals with a high oxidation capacity. Additionally, some interesting combinations of physical, chemical, and biological methods are discussed. Finally, this work includes a critical discussion and comparison of several novel methods for the removal or degradation of MPs from water bodies and wastewaters, emphasizing the areas of opportunity and challenges to be faced. Graphical abstract

Background: Humans cannot avoid plastic exposure due to its ubiquitous presence in the natural environment. The waste generated is poorly biodegradable and exists in the form of MPs, which can enter the human body primarily through the digestive tract, respiratory tract, or damaged skin and accumulate in various tissues by crossing biological membrane barriers. There is an increasing amount of research on the health effects of MPs. Most literature reports focus on the impact of plastics on the respiratory, digestive, reproductive, hormonal, nervous, and immune systems, as well as the metabolic effects of MPs accumulation leading to epidemics of obesity, diabetes, hypertension, and non-alcoholic fatty liver disease. MPs, as xenobiotics, undergo ADMET processes in the body, i.e., absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion, which are not fully understood. Of particular concern are the carcinogenic chemicals added to plastics during manufacturing or adsorbed from the environment, such as chlorinated paraffins, phthalates, phenols, and bisphenols, which can be released when absorbed by the body. The continuous increase in NMP exposure has accelerated during the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic when there was a need to use single-use plastic products in daily life. Therefore, there is an urgent need to diagnose problems related to the health effects of MP exposure and detection. Methods: We collected eligible publications mainly from PubMed published between 2017 and 2024. Results: In this review, we summarize the current knowledge on potential sources and routes of exposure, translocation pathways, identification methods, and carcinogenic potential confirmed by in vitro and in vivo studies. Additionally, we discuss the limitations of studies such as contamination during sample preparation and instrumental limitations constraints affecting imaging quality and MPs detection sensitivity. Conclusions: The assessment of MP content in samples should be performed according to the appropriate procedure and analytical technique to ensure Quality and Control (QA/QC). It was confirmed that MPs can be absorbed and accumulated in distant tissues, leading to an inflammatory response and initiation of signaling pathways responsible for malignant transformation.

The pollution of the environment with microplastics (plastic pieces <5 mm) is a problem of increasing concern. However, although this has been generally recognised by scientists and authorities, the analysis of microplastics is often done by visual inspection alone with potentially high error rates, especially for smaller particles. Methods that allow for a fast and reliable analysis of microplastics enriched on filters are lacking. Our study is the first to fill this gap by using focal plane array detector-based micro-Fourier-transform infrared imaging for analysis of microplastics from environmental samples. As a result of our iteratively optimised analytical approach (concerning filter material, measuring mode, measurement parameters and identification protocol), we were able to successfully measure the whole surface (>10-mm diameter) of filters with microplastics from marine plankton and sediment samples. The measurement with a high lateral resolution allowed for the detection of particles down to a size of 20 ?m in only a fractional part of time needed for chemical mapping. The integration of three band regions facilitated the pre-selection of potential microplastics of the ten most important polymers. Subsequent to the imaging the review of the infrared spectra of the pre-selected potential microplastics was necessary for a verification of plastic polymer origin. The approach we present here is highly suitable to be implemented as a standard procedure for the analysis of small microplastics from environmental samples. However, a further automatisation with respect to measurement and subsequent particle identification would facilitate the even faster and fully automated analysis of microplastic samples.

Microplastic fibres (MPFs) released from textiles are routinely found throughout the environment indicating human impacts on natural systems. The most common release pathway to the environment investigated are domestic textile laundering, transport through and retention in municipal wastewater treatment plants and subsequent application of processed sludge onto agricultural fields as soil amendment. A less-studied but potentially equally relevant source is releases further upstream in the textile production chain such as industrial wastewater effluents from textile processing mills. In this context, industrial wastewater from a typical textile wet-processing mill in China was sampled to estimate MPF release. Effluent was sampled and MPF fibre number and length were quantified by stereomicroscope. An average of 361.6 ± 24.5 MPFs L−1 was identified in the mill effluent. MPF length was highly variable, yet 92 % of all fibres were shorter than 1000 µm. Additionally, the sampling strategy was used to identify the optimal volume necessary to adequately subsample the effluent. We found that total fibre counts were linearly correlated with sample volumes between 1 and 10 L, but a sampling volume of 5 L is suggested for good reproducibility, low standard deviation and ease of working volume. The significant abundance of MPFs in the industrial wastewater effluent emphasises that not only should attention be placed on domestic releases, but the production stage of textiles can also be responsible for MPF pollution. The ability to target and treat industrial effluents may significantly reduce a potentially major point source.

Plastic pollution is one of the most pressing environmental and social issues of the 21st century. Recent work has highlighted the atmosphere’s role in transporting microplastics to remote locations [S. Allen et al., Nat. Geosci. 12, 339 (2019) and J. Brahney, M. Hallerud, E. Heim, M. Hahnenberger, S. Sukumaran, Science 368, 1257–1260 (2020)]. Here, we use in situ observations of microplastic deposition combined with an atmospheric transport model and optimal estimation techniques to test hypotheses of the most likely sources of atmospheric plastic. Results suggest that atmospheric microplastics in the western United States are primarily derived from secondary reemission sources including roads (84%), the ocean (11%), and agricultural soil dust (5%). Using our best estimate of plastic sources and modeled transport pathways, most continents were net importers of plastics from the marine environment, underscoring the cumulative role of legacy pollution in the atmospheric burden of plastic. This effort uses high-resolution spatial and temporal deposition data along with several hypothesized emission sources to constrain atmospheric plastic. Akin to global biogeochemical cycles, plastics now spiral around the globe with distinct atmospheric, oceanic, cryospheric, and terrestrial residence times. Though advancements have been made in the manufacture of biodegradable polymers, our data suggest that extant nonbiodegradable polymers will continue to cycle through the earth’s systems. Due to limited observations and understanding of the source processes, there remain large uncertainties in the transport, deposition, and source attribution of microplastics. Thus, we prioritize future research directions for understanding the plastic cycle.