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The primary fatty acid of coconut oil is lauric acid, which is present at approximately 45–53 %. The metabolic and physiological properties of lauric acid account for many of the properties of coconut oil. Coconut oil is rapidly metabolized because it is easily absorbed and lauric acid is easily transported. Detailed studies have shown that the majority of ingested lauric acid is transported directly to the liver where it is directly converted to energy and other metabolites rather than being stored as fat. Such metabolites include ketone bodies, which can be used by extrahepatic tissues, such as the brain and heart, as an immediate form of energy. Studies on the effect of lauric acid on serum cholesterol are contradictory. Among saturated fatty acids, lauric acid has been shown to contribute the least to fat accumulation. Lauric acid and monolaurin have demonstrably significant antimicrobial activity against gram positive bacteria and a number of fungi and viruses. Today there are many commercial products that use lauric acid and monolaurin as antimicrobial agents. Because of the significant differences in the properties of lauric acid relative to longer chain fatty acids, they are typically differentiated as medium-chain fatty acids covering C6–C12, and long-chain fatty acids covering C14 and longer.

The effects of monolaurin (ML) on the health of piglets infected with porcine epidemic diarrhoea virus (PEDV) have not been fully understood. This study aimed to investigate its role in blood biochemical profile, intestinal barrier function, antioxidant function and the expression of antiviral genes in piglets infected with PEDV. Thirty-two piglets were randomly divided into four groups: control group, ML group, PEDV group and ML + PEDV group. Piglets were orally administrated with ML at a dose of 100 mg/kg·BW for 7 d before PEDV infection. Results showed that PEDV infection significantly decreased D-xylose content and increased intestinal fatty acid-binding protein content, indicating that PEDV infection destroyed intestinal barrier and absorption function. While it could be repaired by ML administration. Moreover, ML administration significantly decreased plasma blood urea nitrogen and total protein content upon PEDV infection. These results suggested ML may increase protein utilisation efficiency. ML administration significantly decreased the number of large unstained cells and Hb and increased the number of leucocytes and eosinophils in the blood of PEDV-infected piglets, indicating ML could improve the immune defense function of the body. In the presence of PEDV infection, ML administration significantly increased superoxide dismutase and catalase activities in blood and colon, respectively, indicating ML could improve antioxidant capacity. Besides, ML administration reversed the expression of ISG15, IFIT3 and IL-29 throughout the small intestine and Mx1 in jejunum and ileum, indicating the body was in recovery from PEDV infection. This study suggests that ML could be used as a kind of feed additive to promote swine health upon PEDV infection.

The aim of this study was to investigate the antibacterial interactions of pulegone and 1,8‐cineole with monolaurin ornisin against Staphylococcus aureus. The individual and combined antibacterial activities of the compounds were evaluated using minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC), minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC), fractional inhibitory concentration index (FICi), and time‐kill methods. Furthermore, the mechanism of the antibacterial action of the compounds was tested by measuring the release of cell constituents. The MIC values of pulegone, 1,8‐cineole, nisin, and monolaurin were 5.85 µl/ml, 23.43 µl/ml, 6.25 µg/ml, and 0.031 mg/ml, respectively. A synergistic antibacterial activity (FICi = 0.5) was found between 1,8‐cineole and nisin. The time‐kill assay showed that the populations of S. aureus exposed to 1,8‐cineole, nisin, and their combination were decreased by 5.9, 5.3, and 7.1 log CFU (colony‐forming units)/mL, respectively. The combination of 1,8‐cineole and nisin also induced the highest release of cell constituents. It was concluded that the combination of 1,8‐cineole and nisin could be considered as a novel and promising combination which may reduce the required dose of each antibacterial compound. The antibacterial activity of pulegone and 1,8‐cineole combined with monolaurin or nisin was investigated against Staphylococcus aureus. A synergistic antibacterial effect was found between 1,8‐cineole and nisin. This combination also induced the highest release of cell constituents. Therefore, the combination of 1,8‐cineole and nisin could be considered as a novel and effective antibacterial combination to control S. aureus.

This study was conducted to investigate the impact of glycerol monolaurate (GML) on performance, immunity, intestinal barrier, and cecal microbiota in broiler chicks. A total of 360 one-day-old broilers (Arbor Acres) with an average weight of 45.7 g were randomly allocated to five dietary groups as follows: basal diet and basal diets complemented with 300, 600, 900, or 1200 mg/kg GML. Samples were collected at 7 and 14 days of age. Results revealed that feed intake increased ( P < 0.05) after 900 and 1200 mg/kg GML were administered during the entire 14-day experiment period. Dietary GML decreased ( P < 0.05) crypt depth and increased the villus height-to-crypt depth ratio of the jejunum. In the serum and jejunum, supplementation with more than 600 mg/kg GML reduced ( P < 0.05) interleukin-1β, tumor necrosis factor-α, and malondialdehyde levels and increased ( P < 0.05) the levels of immunoglobulin G, jejunal mucin 2, total antioxidant capacity, and total superoxide dismutase. GML down-regulate ( P < 0.05) jejunal interleukin-1β and interferon- γ expression and increased ( P < 0.05) the mRNA level of zonula occludens 1 and occludin. A reduced ( P < 0.05) expression of toll-like receptor 4 and nuclear factor kappa-B was shown in GML-treated groups. In addition, GML modulated the composition of the cecal microbiota of the broilers, improved ( P < 0.05) microbial diversity, and increased ( P < 0.05) the abundance of butyrate-producing bacteria. Spearman’s correlation analysis revealed that the genera Barnesiella , Coprobacter , Lachnospiraceae , Faecalibacterium , Bacteroides , Odoriacter , and Parabacteroides were related to inflammation and intestinal integrity. In conclusion, GML ameliorated intestinal morphology and barrier function in broiler chicks probably by regulating intestinal immune and antioxidant balance, as well as intestinal microbiota.

Recent studies reveal that glycerol monolaurate (GML) is regarded as an effective feed supplement in the production of broilers; however, the underlying mechanism remains unknown. The current study aimed to investigate how GML affected production performance and meat quality in yellow-feathered broilers. A total of 528 chicks were randomly assigned into four groups for a 56-day feeding trial. The control group received a basal diet, and the treated groups fed basal diet containing 300 (GML300), 450 (GML450), and 600 (GML600) mg/kg GML. Results revealed that dietary GML notably increased the average daily feed intake (p < 0.05) and body weight in broilers during 28–56 days of age and improved the duodenum and jejunum morphology. Dietary GML increased the total cholesterol in broilers (p < 0.05), but the hepatic, abdominal, and muscular fat deposition, as well as muscle fatty acids, were not affected. The flavor amino acids and total amino acids in muscle of GML300 and GML 450 groups were notably (p < 0.05) increased. GML supplementation selectively increased the colonization of an unclassified genus of Lachnospiraceae family and Bifidobacteriaceae, which were significantly (p < 0.05) correlated with the increase of muscle amino acids. Meanwhile, dietary GML notably increased short chain fatty acids content and the microbial DNA abundance of carbohydrate, amino acids and lipid metabolism pathway in cecum. These findings demonstrated that dietary GML improved performance, intestinal morphology, and muscle amino acids in broilers mainly by manipulating community, function and metabolites of gut microbiota.Key points• GML improves performance, muscle composition, and feed efficiency in broilers.• GML alters gut microbiota community, function, and microbial metabolites in broilers.• Improvements of broilers by GML closely associated with gut microbiota alteration.

Currently, monoglycerides (MG) are produced using a complicated energy-intensive technology that contributes negatively toward greenhouse gas mitigation. This work suggests a cleaner and simpler one-step enzymatic production of α-monolaurin in an inert membrane reactor, where the reaction and enzyme separation are conducted simultaneously in one unit. Candida antarctica lipase (Lipozyme 435) was used to catalyze the esterification reaction between lauric acid and glycerin in a solvent-free system under mild temperatures. Response surface methodology was used to optimize the reaction conditions. The optimal conditions were a molecular sieve of 14.85% w/w, a temperature of 56.95 °C, an enzyme amount of 5.38% w/w, and a molar ratio of 4.75% w/w. The gas chromatography (GC) analysis showed that the α-monolaurin percentage was 49.5% when the enzymatic process (ENZ) was used. The conventional chemical (CHEM) and autocatalytic (AUT) esterification methods were also performed to study their proportional MG yields. The GC results showed the MG percentages of 43.9 and 41.7% for CHEM and AUT, respectively. Economic analysis was also conducted for the suggested enzymatic technique, and the findings were compared with those of the CHEM and AUT technologies. Using a plant capacity of 4950 t/year and 11% interest for the proposed ENZ process, the total capital investment of α-monolaurin production was preferably four times less than that of the CHEM process and three times less than that of the AUT method, presenting investment possibilities. However, the ENZ process showed the least profitability (net profit per day) among the three processes. Nevertheless, the return on investment and net present value for the ENZ process were preferably higher than those of CHEM and AUT because of its interestingly lower inside battery limit plant cost and less energy consumption. The AUT/CHEM processes generated a total carbon dioxide (CO2) exhaust of 678.7 t CO2 eq./year. In contrast, the ENZ process exhausted a total CO2 of only 50 t CO2 eq./year. The present integrated techno-economic and environmental study of α-monolaurin production emphasizes the green and cost benefits of the proposed ENZ technology.

Background Infectious bronchitis virus (IBV) leads to huge economic losses in the poultry industry worldwide. The high levels of mutations of IBV render vaccines partially protective. Therefore, it is urgent to explore an effective antiviral drug or agent. The present study aimed to investigate the in vivo anti-IBV activity of a mixture of plant essential oils (PEO) of cinnamaldehyde (CA) and glycerol monolaurate (GML), designated as Jin-Jing-Zi. Results The antiviral effects were evaluated by clinical signs, viral loads, immune organ indices, antibody levels, and cytokine levels. The infection rates in the PEO-M (middle dose) and PEO-H (high dose) groups were significantly lower than those in the prevention, positive drug, and PEO-L (low dose) groups. The cure rates in the PEO-M and PEO-H groups were significantly higher than those in the prevention, positive drug, and PEO-L groups, and the PEO-M group had the highest cure rate of 92.31%. The symptom scores and IBV mRNA expression levels were significantly reduced in the PEO-M group. PEO significantly improved the immune organ indices and IBV-specific antibody titers of infected chickens. The anti-inflammatory factor levels of IL-4 and IFN-γ in the PEO-M group maintained high concentrations for a long time. The IL-6 levels in the PEO-M group were lower than those in prevention, positive drug, and PEO-L groups. Conclusion The PEO had remarkable inhibition against IBV and the PEO acts by inhibiting virus multiplication and promoting immune function, suggesting that the PEO has great potential as a novel anti-IBV agent for inhibiting IBV infection.

The COVID-19 pandemic has stimulated the search for effective preventive and therapeutic agents. In recent years, many studies have considered the effects of different nutrients. This study aimed to investigate the association between serum monolaurin levels and the risk of developing COVID-19 among healthcare workers. In this prospective observational cohort study, 2712 healthcare workers from the University Hospital “Maggiore della Carità” in Novara, Italy were enrolled. Participants underwent blood sampling and were followed up for six months to evaluate the protective role of serum monolaurin against COVID-19 infection. Monolaurin levels were quantified using targeted metabolomic analysis. The study cohort consisted of 1000 individuals with a mean age of 46.4 years, predominantly female. Higher serum monolaurin concentrations were significantly associated with a lower risk of SARS-CoV-2 infection at both 3- and 6-month follow-ups. The optimal cut-off value for serum monolaurin, which provides protective efficacy, was identified as 0.45 µg/mL. Higher serum monolaurin levels appear to be associated with a reduced risk of COVID-19, suggesting its potential as a protective dietary supplement against SARS-CoV-2 infection. This study contributes to the growing body of evidence supporting the role of dietary factors in the management and prevention of infectious diseases and highlights the potential of targeted metabolomics in identifying prophylactic biomarkers.

Naturally occurring monoglyceride esters of fatty acids have been associated with a broad spectrum of antimicrobial activities. We used an automated turbidimetric method to measure the MIC and assess the antimicrobial activity of five monoglycerides (monocaprin, monolaurin, monomyristin, monopalmitin, and monostearin) against pathogenic strains of Staphylococcus aureus, Bacillus subtilis, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Escherichia coli. The antibacterial activity of monocaprin was highest because its carbon chain is shorter than those of other monoglycerides. The MICs of monocaprin against S. aureus, B. subtilis, P. aeruginosa, and E. coli were 0.32, 0.32, 2.5, and 2.5 mg/mL, respectively. Monocaprin had antibacterial activity under neutral and alkaline conditions (pH 7.0 to 9.0) but had no inhibitory effect on S. aureus, B. subtilis, and E. coli under weakly acidic conditions (pH 6.0). The antibacterial mechanism of monocaprin against gram-positive strains (S. aureus and B. subtilis) resulted from destruction of the cell membrane. In contrast, the antibacterial activity of monocaprin against gram-negative strains (P. aeruginosa and E. coli) was attributed to damage to lipopolysaccharides in the cell walls. Because of its inhibitory effect on both gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria, monocaprin could be used as an antibacterial additive in the food industry.

Background A major worldwide health issue is the rising frequency of resistance of bacteria.Drug combinations are a winning strategy in fighting resistant bacteria and might help in protecting the existing drugs.Monolaurin is natural compound extracted from coconut oil and has a promising antimicrobial activity against Staphylococcus.aureus . This study aims to examine the efficacy of monolaurin both individually and in combination with β-lactam antibiotics against Staphylococcus aureus isolates. Methods Agar dilution method was used for determination of minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of monolaurin against S.aureus isolates. Scanning electron microscope (SEM) was used to detect morphological changes in S.aureus after treatment with monolaurin. Conventional and Real-time Polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) were performed to detect of beta-lactamase (blaZ) gene and its expressional levels after monolaurin treatment. Combination therapy of monolaurin and antibiotics was assessed through fractional inhibitory concentration and time-kill method. Results The antibacterial activity of monolaurin was assessed on 115 S.aureus isolates, the MIC of monolaurin were 250 to 2000 µg/ml. SEM showed cell elongation and swelling in the outer membrane of S.aureus in the prescence of 1xMIC of monolaurin. bla Z gene was found in 73.9% of S.aureus isolates. RT-PCR shows a significant decrease in of blaZ gene expression at 250 and 500 µg/ml of monolaurin. Synergistic effects were detected through FIC method and time killing curve. Combination therapy established a significant reduction on the MIC value. The collective findings from the antibiotic combinations with monolaurin indicated synergism rates ranging from 83.3% to 100%.In time-kill studies, combination of monolaurin and β-lactam antibiotics produced a synergistic effect. Conclusion This study showed that monolaurin may be a natural antibacterial agent against S. aureus , and may be an outstanding modulator of β-lactam drugs. The concurrent application of monolaurin and β-lactam antibiotics, exhibiting synergistic effects against S. aureus in vitro, holds promise as potential candidates for the development of combination therapies that target particularly, patients with bacterial infections that are nearly incurable.