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The present study analyzed the consumption-based carbon emissions from fossil fuel consumption of Beijing in 2012. The multi-scale input-output analysis method was applied. It is capable of tracing the carbon emissions embodied in imports based on a global multi-regional input-output analysis using Eora data. The results show that the consumption-based carbon emission of Beijing has increased by 18% since 2007, which is 2.57 times higher than the production-based carbon emission in 2012. Only approximately 1/10 of the total carbon emissions embodied in Beijing's local final demand originated from local direct carbon emissions. Meanwhile, more than 4/5 were from domestically imported products. The carbon emission nexus between Beijing and other Chinese regions has become closer since 2007, while the imbalance as the carbon emission transfer from Beijing to other regions has been mitigated. Instead, Beijing has imported more carbon emissions from foreign countries. Some carbon emission reduction strategies for Beijing concerning different goals are presented on the basis of detailed discussion.

Cities are a major source of carbon emissions and should play an important role in reducing carbon emissions. This study applies the method of multi-scale input–output analysis (MSIO) to analyze the consumption-based carbon emissions of Tianjin in 2012. This method can estimate the carbon emissions embodied in imported products. The results reveal that the production-based carbon emissions of Tianjin were 1.52 × 108 tonnes CO2 in 2012, which had increased over 50% since 2007. Meanwhile, the consumption-based carbon emissions of Tianjin city were 2.55 × 108 tonnes CO2, 1.71 times higher than those in 2007 and 1.67 times the amount of production-based carbon emissions in 2012. Regarding the total embodied carbon emissions involved in the Tianjin economy in 2012, about 6% were from foreign countries, over 60% were from other regions of China, and only one-third were territorial-based or production-based carbon emissions. Correspondingly, Tianjin respectively exported 11% and 34% of the total embodied carbon emissions to foreign countries and other regions in China, while over half were embodied in the local final demand. Tianjin was a carbon budget importer in domestic trade and an exporter in international trade in both 2007 and 2012. However, when both domestic and international trades are considered, Tianjin had shifted from a carbon budget exporter in 2007 to an importer in 2012. Since 2007, the carbon nexus between Tianjin and other regions in China had become much closer (carbon emissions embodied in domestic trade increased 103.47%), but the connection with foreign countries became looser (carbon emissions embodied in international trade decreased 21.96%). Compared to Beijing in 2012, it is evident that there were less carbon emission transfer issues for Tianjin city.

Since China carries an increasingly significant responsibility in carbon emission reduction, a systematic assessment from the multi-scale and multi-regional perspective is essential to examine the region-specific carbon emissions and different kinds of carbon transfer patterns. By identifying carbon emission flows among 31 domestic provincial administrative regions and 184 foreign countries/economies, this work examines the domestic and foreign carbon emission flows of Chinese provinces/municipalities based on the intra- and inter-national relations. Overall, the provinces and municipalities in China are divided into 4 patterns according to carbon emission flows, among which inland provinces mainly engage in domestic carbon emission transfers, western regions generally receive carbon emissions with main carbon outflows in northeastern and central provinces, and coastal regions play an essential role in balancing carbon emission surpluses and deficits between domestic and foreign regions. For different sub-regions in China, recognizing carbon emission transfer relations contributes to the synergetic and sustainable regional development from a tele-connected perspective. With the nested network analysis, the multi-scale and multi-regional assessments focusing upon China’s provinces and municipalities extend the existing research to both national and global scales, providing a solid foundation for sustainable regional development in China.

Globalization has reorganized industrial spatial patterns, embedding regional economies into complex global production systems. However, the existing literature primarily focuses on the national level, leaving the “global-national-local” multi-scale linkages of sub-national regions underexplored. Focusing on Guangdong, which is China’s most open economic gateway, this study constructs a nested Multi-Regional input–output (MRIO) model to systematically reveal its industrial linkage paths across multiple scales. The results demonstrate that Guangdong features “strong local services and extensive global connections.” Specifically, the network is led by the high-R&D-intensity category and supported by energy and low-R&D categories, highlighted by two core supply paths, which are non-metallic mineral supply for construction and metal product support for optical–electrical manufacturing. Four heterogeneous modes are identified: resource security, innovation-driven dual circulation, cost-competitive regional division, and export-oriented service support. Crucially, the provincial “domestic intermediate chains plus international core chains” logic underscores Guangdong’s role as a bridge connecting Global and Domestic Value Chains. Theoretically, this work enriches the local dimension of Global Production Network theory. Methodologically, it provides an operational tool for nested analysis. Practically, it offers policy evidence for open economies to optimize industrial layouts and enhance supply chain resilience.