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The review of the Terrestrial Ecotoxicology Guidance concerns three groups of non‐target organisms (NTOs): non‐target arthropods other than bees, in‐soil organisms and non‐target terrestrial plants. Thus, specific protection goals (SPGs) would need to be defined for all these groups. In view of the link between direct and indirect effects, the need to include considerations of indirect effects via trophic interactions when setting SPGs was recognised. This document serves to illustrate the strategy proposed by the Working Group for supporting Risk Managers in the definition of the SPGs. The methodology uses as a starting point previous Scientific Opinions of the PPR Panel where SPG options were comprehensively explored. Following an analysis and synthesis of such Opinions, the Working Group has elaborated further the various options and has identified key aspects requiring further consideration, mainly pertaining to the definition of the magnitude of acceptable effects and the related timescale. To address those aspects a methodology for building multiple lines of evidence is presented.

Societal impact statement Maize varieties producing insecticidal proteins from Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) have become an important component of integrated pest management worldwide. For regulatory approval of such plants, risks to the environment need to be assessed. To make such assessments less expensive and time‐consuming, conclusions drawn from data collected in one region could be used in regulatory submissions in other regions. By comparing published data of invertebrates recorded in Bt maize field experiments worldwide, we contribute to the discussion of data transportability across continents. The results are of value to regulatory authorities throughout the world and ultimately of benefit to growers and consumers. Summary For insecticidal crops, adverse effects on non‐target invertebrates including beneficial decomposers, predators, and parasitoids are of particular concern. This work focuses on data transportability across continents by comparing non‐target invertebrate data from published Bt maize field studies. Data derived from a comprehensive global database were summarized for taxonomic composition and subjected to meta‐analyses considering taxonomy, Bt maize target insect order, and ecological functional group. Each dataset represents a replicated comparison of an invertebrate population recorded in Bt maize with the respective population in non‐Bt (control) maize. Taxonomic composition at order or higher taxonomic level was comparable across continents. Meta‐analyses revealed that most analyzed invertebrates were equally abundant in Bt and non‐Bt maize, while robust adverse effects were only observed on specialized parasitoids of target pests. The conclusions drawn from the North American data were confirmed for Europe and Asia. The similarity of species communities at order level as well as outcomes of meta‐analyses across continents indicate that conclusions from field studies are generally transportable across geographies. High‐quality, well‐designed, well‐described, and independent studies from multiple locations and years, and open‐access data availability (transparency), increase trust in the conclusions drawn and the usefulness for submissions to multiple regulatory systems. Zusammenfassung Maissorten, die insektizide Proteine aus Bacillus thuringiensis produzieren, sind weltweit eine wichtige Komponente des integrierten Pflanzenschutzes geworden. Für die Zulassung solcher Pflanzen müssen mögliche Umweltrisiken beurteilt werden. Um solche Beurteilungen günstiger und schneller durchzuführen, könnten Schlussfolgerungen von Daten, die in einer Region erhoben wurden, auch für die Zulassung in anderen Regionen verwendet werden. Wir beteiligen uns an der Diskussion zur Datenübertragbarkeit, indem wir veröffentlichte Daten von Invertebraten vergleichen, die in weltweiten Feldversuchen mit Bt Mais erhoben wurden. Die Ergebnisse sind wertvoll für Regulierungsbehörden auf der ganzen Welt und nützen letztendlich den Landwirtinnen und Landwirten sowie den Verbraucherinnen und Verbrauchern. Maize varieties producing insecticidal proteins from Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) have become an important component of integrated pest management worldwide. For regulatory approval of such plants, risks to the environment need to be assessed. To make such assessments less expensive and time‐consuming, conclusions drawn from data collected in one region could be used in regulatory submissions in other regions. By comparing published data of invertebrates recorded in Bt maize field experiments worldwide, we contribute to the discussion of data transportability across continents. The results are of value to regulatory authorities throughout the world and ultimately of benefit to growers and consumers.

Antibiotics are used to treat bacterial infections in humans and animals and also act as a growth promoter for poultry. Due to incomplete metabolism, these antibiotics are excreted in the environment in their parental forms and accumulates in the aquatic ecosystem. Besides the evolution of antibiotic-resistant bacteria, these drugs can damage non-target organisms. Green algae are highly sensitive to different antibiotics. Damage in the algal population will cause imbalances in the ecosystems. Till now, the mechanisms of antibiotic toxicity towards algae have not been completely elucidated. It was observed that antibiotics mainly affected the photosynthetic machinery and decreased the carbon fixation process, finally resulting in algal growth inhibition. This present review deals with antibiotics classification, various routes of antibiotics exposure to the freshwater environment, sensitivity towards the different classes of antibiotics, possible Mode-of-Action (MOA) on algal systems, and gaps that need to be filled. Significant gaps include the unavailability of proper eco-toxicological data for antibiotics. Moreover, they exist in nature as complex mixtures, and their behavior in the ecosystem may vastly differ from the parent molecules. To improve our understanding of antibiotic responses mechanism in real-life scenarios, mixture toxicity studies may be the first step.

Background & objectives: Vector control strategies play significant role in reducing the transmission of malaria, dengue and other vector-borne diseases. The control of vector population using synthetic insecticides has resulted in development of insecticide resistance and negative effects on humans and environment. The present investigation evaluated the larvicidal potential of methanol, dichloromethane and hexane extracts of leaves and seeds of Ricinus communis (castor) plant against the early IV instar larvae of the dengue vector, Aedes aegypti, and malaria vector, Anopheles culicifacies. Methods: Plant extracts were screened for their efficacy against Ae. aegypti and An. culicifacies using WHO standard larval susceptibility test method. Dose response bioassay was performed to get lethal concentrations. Further, gas chromatography-mass spectroscopy (GC-MS) analysis was carried out to identify the bioactive chemical constituents of the extracts of R. communis. Toxicity of the extracts towards non-target organism, Poecilia reticulata was also evaluated. Results: The leaf and seed extracts of R. communis showed significant mortality against the larvae of Ae. aegypti and An. culicifacies at concentrations of 31.25, 62.5, 125, 250, 500 ppm; and 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64 ppm, respectively. At 24 h of the exposure period, the larvicidal activities were highest for the methanol extract of seeds with LC50 15.52 and 9.37 ppm and LC90 45.24 and 31.1 ppm for Ae. aegypti and An. culicifacies, respectively. The methanol extract of seeds and leaves was found to be safe towards non-target organism, P. reticulata. The GC-MS profile showed that seed extracts were having higher concentration of stigmasterol (7.5%), β-sitosterol (11.48%), methyl linoleate (2.5%), vitamin E (11.93%), and ricinoleic acid (34%) than the leaf extracts. Interpretation & conclusion: The seed extract of R. communis has better larvicidal activity than the leaf extract and can be used as an effective larvicide against mosquitoes. The non-toxicity of the extracts towards P. reticulata further suggests that these plant extracts could be used along with predatory fishes in integrated vector control approaches.

Four genetically modified (GM) maize (Zea mays L.) hybrids (coleopteran resistant, coleopteran and lepidopteran resistant, lepidopteran resistant and herbicide tolerant, coleopteran and herbicide tolerant) and its non‐GM control maize stands were tested to compare the functional diversity of arthropods and to determine whether genetic modifications alter the structure of arthropods food webs. A total number of 399,239 arthropod individuals were used for analyses. The trophic groups’ number and the links between them indicated that neither the higher magnitude of Bt toxins (included resistance against insect, and against both insects and glyphosate) nor the extra glyphosate treatment changed the structure of food webs. However, differences in the average trophic links/trophic groups were detected between GM and non‐GM food webs for herbivore groups and plants. Also, differences in characteristic path lengths between GM and non‐GM food webs for herbivores were observed. Food webs parameterized based on 2‐year in‐field assessments, and their properties can be considered a useful and simple tool to evaluate the effects of Bt toxins on non‐target organisms. We report on a 2‐year field experimental test of whether different genotypic lines, of which some are novel with no previous field tests, of genetically modified (GM) maize hybrids alter the structure of arthropod food webs that they harbour, relative to non‐GM maize (control) that is widely used in agriculture. The food web analyses on GMO maize based on almost 400,000 arthropod individuals is a new approach to test the harmful effects of these plants.

The European Commission asked the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) to prepare a statement on a framework for the environmental risk assessment (ERA) of transition metals (e.g. iron and copper) used as active substances in plant protection products (PPPs). Non‐degradability, essentiality and specific conditions affecting fate and behaviour as well as their toxicity are distinctive characteristics possibly not covered in current guidance for PPPs. The proposed risk assessment framework starts with a preliminary phase, in which monitoring data on transition metals in relevant environmental compartments are provided. They deliver the metal natural background and anthropogenic residue levels to be considered in the exposure calculations. A first assessment step is then performed assuming fully bioavailable residues. Should the first step fail, refined ERA can, in principle, consider bioavailability issues; however, non‐equilibrium conditions need to be taken into account. Simple models that are fit for purpose should be employed in order to avoid unnecessary complexity. Exposure models and scenarios would need to be adapted to address environmental processes and parameters relevant to the fate and behaviour of transition metals in water, sediment and soils (e.g. speciation). All developments should follow current EFSA guidance documents. If refined approaches have been used in the risk assessment of PPPs containing metals, post‐registration monitoring and controlled long‐term studies should be conducted and assessed. Utilisation of the same transition metal in other PPPs or for other uses will lead to accumulation in environmental compartments acting as sinks. In general, it has to be considered that the prospective risk assessment of metal‐containing PPPs can only cover a defined period as there are limitations in the long‐term hazard assessment due to issues of non‐degradability. It is therefore recommended to consider these aspects in any risk management decisions and to align the ERA with the goals of other overarching legislative frameworks. This publication is linked to the following EFSA Supporting Publications article: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.2903/sp.efsa.2021.EN-6501/full

Neonicotinoid pesticides were first introduced in the mid-1990s, and since then, their use has grown rapidly. They are now the most widely used class of insecticides in the world, with the majority of applications coming from seed dressings. Neonicotinoids are water-soluble, and so can be taken up by a developing plant and can be found inside vascular tissues and foliage, providing protection against herbivorous insects. However, only approximately 5% of the neonicotinoid active ingredient is taken up by crop plants and most instead disperses into the wider environment. Since the mid-2000s, several studies raised concerns that neonicotinoids may be having a negative effect on non-target organisms, in particular on honeybees and bumblebees. In response to these studies, the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) was commissioned to produce risk assessments for the use of clothianidin, imidacloprid and thiamethoxam and their impact on bees. These risk assessments concluded that the use of these compounds on certain flowering crops poses a high risk to bees. On the basis of these findings, the European Union adopted a partial ban on these substances in May 2013. The purpose of the present paper is to collate and summarise scientific evidence published since 2013 that investigates the impact of neonicotinoids on non-target organisms. Whilst much of the recent work has focused on the impact of neonicotinoids on bees, a growing body of evidence demonstrates that persistent, low levels of neonicotinoids can have negative impacts on a wide range of free-living organisms.

Plant parasitic nematodes cause significant crop damage globally. Currently, many nematicides have been banned or are being phased out in Europe and other parts of the world because of environmental and human health concerns. Therefore, we need to focus on sustainable and alternative methods of nematode control to protect crops. Plant roots contain and release a wide range of bioactive secondary metabolites, many of which are known defense compounds. Hence, profound understanding of the root mediated interactions between plants and plant parasitic nematodes may contribute to efficient control and management of pest nematodes. In this review, we have compiled literature that documents effects of root metabolites on plant parasitic nematodes. These chemical compounds act as either nematode attractants, repellents, hatching stimulants or inhibitors. We have summarized the few studies that describe how root metabolites regulate the expression of nematode genes. As non-herbivorous nematodes contribute to decomposition, nutrient mineralization, microbial community structuring and control of herbivorous insect larvae, we also review the impact of plant metabolites on these non-target organisms.

With the escalating food demand of the ever-increasing global population and the rapid development of nanotechnology, nanopesticides are being proposed as alternatives for conventional pesticides. Nanocarriers or nanosized active ingredients can be used in nanopesticide formulations that exhibit enhanced stability, superior efficiency, good dispersion, and controllable release to target organisms compared to conventional pesticides. This can decrease the global volume of pesticide applied to crops. Nevertheless, the enhanced chemical stability of active ingredients implies persistence, and the good dispersion of active ingredients may induce interactions between nanopesticides and non-target organisms. Nanopesticides may thus have adverse impacts on non-target organisms, which is often not sufficiently considered by nanopesticide developers. Here, we review environmental risks and potential benefits of nanopesticides relative to conventional pesticides.  Benefits of nanopesticides relative to conventional pesticides are increased stability, controlled release of active ingredients, superior efficacy, lower dose required, good dispersion and decreasing residue. We highlight possible impacts of nanopesticides on living organisms in soil and aquatic environment.

Using mathematical modelling, the EFSA GMO Panel has previously quantified the risk to non‐target (NT) Lepidoptera of conservation concern, potentially occurring within protected habitats, associated with the ingestion of Bt‐maize pollen deposited on their host plants. To reduce the estimated larval mortality to a negligible level, an isolation distance of 20 and 30 m was recommended between protected habitats and the nearest fields of maize MON 810/Bt11 and 1507, respectively. Here, the EFSA GMO Panel refines its model predictions, accounting for newly reported information on maize pollen deposition over long distances. For its calculations, the EFSA GMO Panel considered three exposure scenarios at a range of isolation distances, at two protection levels and for a range of lepidopteran species, including hypothetical ones, with a wide spectrum of sensitivities to Bt toxins. An analysis of various sources of uncertainties affecting the exposure of NT Lepidoptera to Bt‐maize pollen was conducted, in order to provide quantitative estimates of realistic exposure levels. The EFSA GMO Panel therefore provides risk managers with a tool to estimate and mitigate the risk for NT Lepidoptera of conservation concern. In contrast to its previous outcomes obtained for unrealistically large levels of exposure that would not be expected in practice, the EFSA GMO Panel reports here mortality estimates for a more realistic level of exposure. The EFSA GMO Panel concludes that its previous recommendation for a 20 m isolation distance around protected habitats, within which maize MON810/Bt11 should not be cultivated, remains valid. New calculations show that the previously recommended isolation distance of 30 m from the nearest maize 1507 field would still protect NT Lepidoptera with known levels of sensitivity, including the ‘highly‐sensitive’ Plutella xylostella. Should hypothetical species with greater sensitivities exist, larger isolation distances would be needed to ensure the desired level of protection.