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Background: Long working hours are detrimental to physical and mental health. However, the association between long working hours and psychosomatic symptoms have remained controversial, possibly because of the existence of mediators between working hours and psychosomatic stress responses. We hypothesized that lifestyle habits, regarding sleep and mealtimes, act as mediators, and analyzed the associations between long working hours, sleep duration, mealtime regularity, and psychosomatic stress responses in office workers. Methods: From April 2017 to March 2018, an online cross-sectional survey regarding overtime work hours, work-related stress, sleep, and eating habits was conducted with employees of 17 companies located in Tokyo, Japan. Answers were obtained from 3559 employees, and 3100 provided written consent for the academic use of their answers, and were included in the analysis. A path analysis was conducted to assess the effect of overtime work on psychosomatic stress via shortened sleep or irregular mealtimes. Results: Overtime work hours had no direct effect on psychosomatic stress responses and depressive symptoms. However, overtime work hours affected sleep duration and the regularity of mealtimes. The effects of overtime work hours on psychosomatic stress responses and depressive symptoms were completely mediated by sleep duration and the regularity of mealtimes. Conclusion: Long working hours do not affect mental health directly; however, shortened sleep duration and irregular mealtimes mediate the effect of long working hours on psychosomatic stress responses and depressive symptoms.

Overtime work has been blamed for the deterioration of employee satisfaction and productivity. However, the organization-level implications of overtime work as a normative expectation remain unclear. In this study, such effects were analyzed through human capital theory and a causal attribution approach. Various organizational outcomes and boundary conditions were explored in explaining these implications. The analysis of time lagged data from 273 firms affirmed that a firm’s overtime level was related negatively to employee satisfaction. However, it was positively related to the firm’s productivity and curvilinearly (inverted U-shaped) related to innovation. The effects of the firm’s overtime level on firm productivity and innovation were also moderated by organizational trust. This study highlights the costs and benefits of overtime work as tools for utilizing human capital and reveals the critical contingency of organizational trust that enables firms to attenuate the costs of the overtime level and accentuate its potential benefits.

Although researchers have argued that long work hours have been shown to threaten individual health, lead to work-family conflict, and reduce job performance, the effect of overtime work on social-related outcomes has received little attention. Based on the framework of relative deprivation, we attempt to address this important issue by exploring whether, why, and when individuals’ overtime work influences their social attitudes. By using the data of 400 Chinese employees from the China Labor-Force Dynamics Survey (CLD), we found that overtime work was associated with a low level of subjective social status and social inclusion. In addition, we found that the time type of overtime work (work overtime on weekdays or on weekends and holidays) has a moderating effect on the relationship between overtime work and social inclusion. That is, employees who work overtime on weekdays are unlikely to have a sense of social inclusion. Furthermore, the negative relationship between overtime work and subjective social status was stronger at a low level of fairness rather than a high level of fairness. In contrast, the negative relationship between overtime work and social inclusion was stronger at a high level of fairness rather than a low level of fairness. These findings highlight the critical role of overtime work in social life and also provide novel insights into social intervention aimed at the happiness and harmony of a society.

Although long working hours are common in working populations, little is known about the effect of long working hours on mental health. We examined the association between long working hours and the onset of depressive and anxiety symptoms in middle-aged employees. Participants were 2960 full-time employees aged 44 to 66 years (2248 men, 712 women) from the prospective Whitehall II cohort study of British civil servants. Working hours, anxiety and depressive symptoms, and covariates were measured at baseline (1997-1999) followed by two subsequent measurements of depressive and anxiety symptoms (2001 and 2002-2004). In a prospective analysis of participants with no depressive (n=2549) or anxiety symptoms (n=2618) at baseline, Cox proportional hazard analysis adjusted for baseline covariates showed a 1.66-fold [95% confidence interval (CI) 1.06-2.61] risk of depressive symptoms and a 1.74-fold (95% CI 1.15-2.61) risk of anxiety symptoms among employees working more than 55 h/week compared with employees working 35-40 h/week. Sex-stratified analysis showed an excess risk of depression and anxiety associated with long working hours among women [hazard ratios (HRs) 2.67 (95% CI 1.07-6.68) and 2.84 (95% CI 1.27-6.34) respectively] but not men [1.30 (0.77-2.19) and 1.43 (0.89-2.30)]. Working long hours is a risk factor for the development of depressive and anxiety symptoms in women.

While numerous researchers and practitioners view overtime as uniformly detrimental, growing evidence reveals complexity and overlooked benefits, particularly for social inclusion. This study focuses specifically on the impact of overtime work on social inclusion within the framework of Chinese culture and institutions, as well as the moderating effect of environmental factors. Drawing on extended-self theory, we propose that as overtime hours increase, the association between work hours and social inclusion becomes U-shaped. By contrast, this association may be moderated by environmental factors, such as work value. As expected, by conducting hierarchical regression analysis following Janssen’s three-step procedure, a sample (n = 529) of Chinese employees from the China Labor-Force Dynamics Survey (CLD) supported that the U-shaped relationship between overtime work and employees’ social inclusion. In addition, the curvilinear association between overtime work and social inclusion is significantly moderated by employees’ work values. The findings align with sustainability agendas that emphasize decent work, inclusion, and long-term employee well-being. Theoretical and practical implications are discussed.

ObjectivesThe mining industry is increasingly adopting extended workdays of 10–12 hour shifts. Studies demonstrate that long work hours are associated with psychomotor impairments caused by fatigue and an increased risk of injury. However, studies involving miners remain limited. This analysis aimed to identify risk factors associated with long working hour injuries and to determine if long working hour incidents were associated with being killed or incidents involving multiple injured workers.MethodsData from US Mine Safety and Health Administration Part 50 reports, 1983–2015, were used to identify long working hour injuries, which were defined as incidents occurring nine or more hours after the start of a shift.ResultsA total of 52 206 injuries (9.6%) occurred during long working hours. The proportion of long working hour injuries increased from 5.5% of all injuries in 1983 to its peak in 2015 at 13.9% (p<0.001). Risk factors associated with long working hour injuries included irregular shift starts, being newly employed, employment by a contractor, metal/non-metal operations and mines with <100 employees. In two separate adjusted models, long working hour injuries were associated with a higher odds of death (adjusted OR [aOR]=1.32; 95% CI 1.18 to 1.48) and single incidents resulting in two or more workers injured (aOR=1.73; 95% CI 1.58 to 1.89).ConclusionsLong working hour injuries were associated with a lack of routine, being new at the mine and specific mining activities. An international shift towards using contract labour and extended workdays indicates that injuries during long working hours will likely continue to grow as a problem in the mining industry.

OBJECTIVE:This study examined how work and family demands affect depressive symptoms, and the mediating roles of work-to-family conflict and family-to-work conflict in a sample of correctional supervisors. METHODS:Using a cross-sectional design, correctional supervisors working in a Northeastern state (n = 156) participated in an online survey. Structural equation modeling was used to examine direct and indirect effects between study variables. RESULTS:Amount of overtime hours worked significantly predicted work-to-family conflict (β = 0.18, P < 0.05), and work-to-family conflict significantly predicted greater depressive symptoms (β = 0.61, P < 0.01). Overtime work also had an indirect effect on depressive symptoms through work-to-family conflict (β = 0.11 [95% CI 0.001–0.42]). No other statistically significant effects of relevance were found. CONCLUSIONS:Working overtime had an indirect effect on correctional supervisors’ depressive symptoms, mediated by work-to-family conflict.

As one of the typical occupations in the new forms of employment generated by the platform economy, a courier has become an important channel for workers to achieve employment and increase their income. The labour process control of a courier by platforms has led to a decline in their employment experience and high mobility, which has affected the overall stability of employment. Using couriers as the research target, a questionnaire survey was conducted to explore the influence mechanism of platform labour process control on employment mobility intentions and the heterogeneity of this influence mechanism among different types of workers. The results show that among the three elements of platform labour process control, algorithmic control, incentive control, and evaluation control all have a significant, positive impact on the employment mobility intentions of couriers, with overtime work and job autonomy playing a partly mediating role respectively, job autonomy playing a significantly larger mediating role than overtime work, and part-time workers are more likely to be influenced by platform labour process control than full-time workers. On this basis, it provides a basis and reference for relevant government departments to implement effective regulation of platform enterprises, to control the degree of platform labour process control within a reasonable range, and to enhance the employment stability of workers, which has distinct theoretical and practical significance.

Although the negative effects of employee overtime have received academic attention, the relationship between overtime work and social workers’ turnover intention and its underlying mechanisms have been less studied. Hence, this study examined the mediating effect of organizational identity in the relationship between overtime work and turnover intention, and the moderating effect of income in the relationship between overtime work or organizational identity and turnover intention. Using the Process method, this study examined a sample of 5,427 participants in the CSWLS, and the results showed that overtime work positively influenced social workers’ turnover intention. The moderated mediation analysis found that organizational identity mediating the relationship, and individual income negatively moderated the relationship between overtime work or organizational identity and turnover intention. These findings suggest that social work agencies need to reduce the number of overtime shifts, create a positive organizational climate and increase income to reduce social workers’ turnover intention.

There existed a lack of measuring instruments to clarify employees’ psychological motivation for working overtime, which challenged the management of employees’ occupational safety and health. Therefore, this article conducted three studies to develop and validate the Motivation for Overtime Work among Chinese Employees (MOW-CE) questionnaire. Study 1 developed the initial questionnaire, consisting of 55 questions. Study 2 involved a formal questionnaire exploring overtime work motivation, which was based on the data obtained from 208 valid questionnaires. Reliability analysis, item analysis, and principal component analysis were carried out to examine six factors, including promotion, belongingness, survival, companion, standard, and aimless, consisting of 21 items. Based on these data, Study 2 constructed the progressive model of external–internal overtime work motivation. Finally, Study 3 validated the formal questionnaire by analyzing the data obtained from 1412 valid questionnaires. The results of the confirmatory factor analysis showed good convergence validity and structural discrimination, and the questionnaire also passed the reliability test. This study proposes a new questionnaire that facilitates an understanding of why individuals work overtime according to an advanced model of external-internal motivations.