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"parental migration"
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Little Whale
Little Whale is nervous about leaving the shallows of the warm, southern sea but Gray Whale gently guides her new baby as they migrate to the cool, rich waters of the north.
Book
Left-Behind Children, Parent-Child Communication and Psychological Resilience: A Structural Equation Modeling Analysis
This study aims to examine the role of parental migration status and parent communication in the psychological and related behavioral status of left-behind children and their psychological resilience. A cross-sectional survey was conducted in Anhui Province of China, and a questionnaire survey was conducted with 1992 teens using the Chinese version of the Parent-Adolescent Communication Scale (PACS), Connor-Davidson Resilience Scale (CD-RISC), and Strength and Difficulties Questionnaires (SDQ). Compared with the never left-behind group, left behind children had relatively lower PACS, CD-RISC and SDQ scores. Absence of parents is related with poorer psychological resilience, while good parent communication is related with better psychological resilience. Better psychological resilience is related to fewer psychological problems regardless of parental migration status. Currently left-behind status demonstrated a negative influence on psychological resilience, while never left-behind status had a positive effect. Interventions are needed to enhance psychological resilience of left-behind children to prevent psychological and related behavioral problems.
Journal Article
It’s for Our Education
As a result of China’s rural–urban bifurcation, millions of rural Chinese children grow up in the absence of one or both parents due to work migration. Contrary to the dismal picture of left-behind children that is depicted by the mass media, comparative studies based on large-scale survey data suggest that left-behind children do not fare worse than those who live with both parents. Researchers have suggested that the positive effects of remittance might outweigh the negative effects of parental absence, and this explains why there is little total effect of parental migration on children’s wellbeing. This, however, does not explain why left-behind children are doing equally well as non-left-behind children in nearly all aspects of life, some of which are affected more by parental care than by economic resources. This paper aims to explore what factors contribute to the all-round resilience of rural left-behind adolescents. Mixed methods were used to collect both quantitative and qualitative data from adolescents, caregivers, and school teachers from a migrant-sending community in central China. Data analyses reveal that adolescent interpretation of parental migration is deeply embedded in Chinese values on education and ideals of mutual responsibilities among family members, and that a positive understanding of parental motivation for labor migration and commitment to education are significant contributors to the resilience displayed by left-behind adolescents. The heterogeneities in the reaction of left-behind adolescents to parental migration demonstrate that the positive perception of parental migration is not a stand-alone protective factor.
Journal Article
Parental Migration and the Social and Mental Well-Being Challenges among Indonesian Left-Behind Children: A Qualitative Study
Parental labour migration, of either one or both parents, has been associated with various challenges among left-behind children (LBC). However, there is a limited understanding of the LBC’s own views and experiences of social and mental well-being and how the new daily life circumstances they encounter following their parents’ migration impact them. This study aimed to understand the influence of parental migration and its aftermath on the social and mental well-being of adolescents (referred to as LBC) in two rural districts in Indonesia. Employing a qualitative design, data were collected through individual in-depth interviews with LBC (n = 24) aged 14 to 18 years, recruited using the snowball sampling technique. Data were thematically analysed, guided by a qualitative data analysis framework. The findings showed that parental migration negatively impacted the social well-being of LBC. This impact was reflected in negative labelling from friends and changes in familial roles which influenced their social interactions and activities with peers. Parental migration was also associated with challenges to the mental well-being of LBC. These manifested in the LBC experiencing fractured emotional bonds, leading to negative emotions, including stress, anxiety, sadness, depression, frustration, loss of motivation, and self-imposed isolation, which were associated with their parents’ migration and abrupt disruptions in parent–child communication. The transition to new life situations with caregivers after parental migration and the dynamics within the caregivers’ households were additional factors that detrimentally affected their mental well-being. Unmet basic needs and educational needs due to financial hardships faced by mothers and caregivers further exacerbated mental health challenges for the children. The findings indicate the importance and improvement of policies and interventions in Indonesia (e.g., counselling services, non-cash food assistance, family hope program, direct cash assistance) that cover and address the diverse needs of mothers or caregivers and the LBC.
Journal Article
Associations Between Family Function and Non-suicidal Self-injury Among Chinese Urban Adolescents with and Without Parental Migration
The study aims to explore the effect of family function on non-suicidal self-injury (NSSI) among Chinese urban adolescents with and without parental migration. Between April 21st to May 12th, 2021, adolescents were recruited from Shenzhen city of Guangdong province, China (n = 124,357). Of all the participants, 22,855 (18.4%) were left-behind children (LBC). Family function, NSSI, depression, and socio-demographic characteristics were assessed using a series of self-reported questionnaires. Urban LBC had a higher NSSI frequency, while a lower level of family function than non-LBC. After controlling for confounders, parental migration was significantly associated with NSSI, and family dysfunction was a robust risk factor for NSSI as well. The protective effect of family function on NSSI of LBC was stronger than non-LBC. This implies that children with higher levels of family function tend to exhibit a lower frequency of NSSI, especially in those with parental migration. In practice, adolescents’ NSSI prevention and intervention strategies should focus on improving family function.
Journal Article
Parental Migration Trajectories From Childhood Through Adolescence: Longitudinal Impact on Emotional and Behavioral Problems Among Chinese Adolescents
It is estimated that there are about 23% of all children in China experiencing parental migration and being left behind at hometown. Existing research indicated a significant association between parental migration and children development but overlooked the dynamic changes in family structure caused by parental migration. In this study, data was derived from a nationally representative longitudinal survey—the China Family Panel Studies. The main analyses employed four waves of data (2012, 2014, 2016, and 2018) and included 1401 adolescents aged 10–15 years (Mean:12.35, SD:1.67; 54.2% female). Six typical trajectories of parental migration capturing both migration status at each timepoint and changes in the status across six years were created. Children’s depression and internalizing problems and externalizing problems were concerned outcomes. The mediating roles of the caregiver-child interaction and caregiver’s depression were examined. Adolescents in the trajectory group described as experiencing transitions between being left behind by both parents and non had a higher risk of depression and internalizing and externalizing problems. Caregivers’ depression was a significant mediator between parental migration and adolescent depression.
Journal Article
Parental migration and young migrants’ wages in urban China
Since the initiation of the economic reforms in 1978, generations of Chinese migrants have moved from the countryside to cities to seek job opportunities. As a result of financial constraints and institutional obstacles, many migrants leave their children at the place of origin, to be taken care of by partners, grandparents or other caregivers. Whilst previous studies primarily focus on the impacts of parental migration on children’s education and health, very few studies have examined its longer-term impacts on labour market income when children reach adulthood. Yet parental migration is likely to influence children’s human capital accumulation and skill development. Drawing on data from the 2011 Chinese Migrant Dynamics Monitoring Survey, this article fills the gap by exploring the relationship between different types of parental migration and their children’s wages when the children have grown up and migrated to work in cities. Structural models are employed to estimate both education and wage equations simultaneously to capture the direct effect of parental migration on wages, together with the mediating effect of education. The results show significantly negative relationships between parental migration and young migrants’ educational attainment and wages. Those who experienced the out-migration of both parents are most disadvantaged in the urban labour market. The study is important for policies aimed at improving migrants’ life prospects and enhancing social mobility and equality.
自1978年开始实施经济改革以来，几代中国移民已从农村迁移到城市寻找就业机会。由于经济拮据和体制障碍，许多移民将子女留在原籍地，由配偶、祖父母或其他照顾者照顾。虽然以前的研究主要关注父母移民对儿童教育和健康的影响，但很少有研究关注儿童到达成年后对劳动力市场收入的长期影响。
然而，父母移民可能会影响儿童的人力资本积累和技能发展。
基于2011年《中国移民动态监测调查》的数据，本文探讨不同类型的父母移民与其子女成年后迁移到城市工作时的工资之间的关系，从而填补这一研究空白。结构模型用于同时估计教育和工资方程，以捕捉父母移民对子女工资的直接影响，以及教育的中介效应。
结果显示，父母移民与青年子女移民的受教育程度和工资水平之间存在显著的负相关关系。那些经历过双亲外迁的人在城市劳动力市场中处于最不利地位。该研究对于旨在改善移民生活前景和加强社会流动性和平等的政策而言非常重要。
Journal Article
The positive effect of parental migration on left-behind children’s academic performance in rural China: a systematic review
Left-behind children (LBC) who are separated from their migrant parents have been the subject of research focusing on their overall well-being, with a particular emphasis on their academic performance. These empirical studies and literature synthesis findings indicate that LBC’s psychological, social, physical, and academic achievement well-being is lower than that of Non-left-behind children (NLBC). Thus, this groundbreaking systematic review sought to unpack the personal background of LBCs (such as province, grade, age, and migrant parents) and substantial factors in existing literature endeavors. This review also presents compelling evidence that elucidates the positive outcomes associated with parental migration and its consequential effects. Relevant studies were sought from trustworthy sources and assessed from January to April 2023, adhering to the PRISMA guidelines. After two authors’ independent screening of the title, abstract, and full text, 11 studies meeting the inclusion/exclusion criteria were examined. The findings revealed that eight eligible studies reported no notable variance in academic achievement between LBC and NLBC, whereas the remaining studies demonstrated that LBC outperformed NLBC. Furthermore, the age of LBC, the period and motives behind parental migration, and the methods of remittance within a household all play crucial roles in shaping the resilience of these children to their academic involvement and achievements. The results of the current review indicate the necessity for future research to delve into the impact of parental migration on the academic performance of left-behind children through the implementation of thorough and robust methodologies that reveal cause-and-effect relationships.
Journal Article
The impact of parental migration on left-behind children’s tooth health in China
Background
Parental migration plays a significant role in shaping the health outcomes of left-behind children. However, limited research has been conducted on how parental migration impacts the dental health of these children in China. To address this gap, this study aims to investigate the effects of parental migration on the dental health of left-behind children and explore the underlying mechanisms that contribute to these outcomes.
Methods
This study utilized data from the first wave of the China Education Panel Survey (CEPS), which included a representative sample of 9,175 junior high school students. Dental caries, the most common dental issue among school-aged children, were employed as the primary indicator of oral health, focusing on both the presence of caries and their treatment. The analysis incorporated multiple methodologies, including the Ordinary Least Squares (OLS) model, instrumental variables approach, and the Propensity Score Matching (PSM) method, to assess the impact of parental migration on the dental health of left-behind children.
Results
The findings indicated that parental migration did not increase the likelihood of left-behind children developing dental caries. However, it significantly reduced the probability of these children receiving treatment for dental caries. These results were consistent across various robustness tests. Mechanism analysis revealed no significant differences in the consumption of carbonated or sugary drinks between left-behind and non-left-behind children. However, left-behind children were less likely to identify their parents as their primary source of support and experienced lower levels of proactive communication from parents about their challenges compared to their peers.
Conclusions
The study highlights that although parental migration does not increase the prevalence of dental caries among left-behind children, it contributes to inequities in their access to treatment. Given the serious implications of untreated dental caries, targeted efforts are needed to improve treatment rates among left-behind children.
Journal Article
Parental Migration and Psychological Well-Being of Children in Rural China
This paper empirically analyzes the impact of parental migration on the psychological well-being of children using ordered probit models based on a survey conducted among 1680 primary school students and their parents in Majiang County, Guizhou Province, China in 2020. The findings are as follows. First, compared with having no migrant parents, having two migrant parents significantly reduces the psychological well-being of children and having one migrant parent has no significant effect. Second, mediation analysis shows that parental migration reduces child depression by increasing household absolute and relative incomes. It also increases depression and reduces the subjective happiness of children by reducing parental discipline. However, it has no significant impact on parent–child interactions. Third, by dividing the sample by absolute and relative poverty, we find that the effect of parental migration on the psychological well-being of children varies with household economic conditions. Comparatively speaking, children from poor households are more affected by parental migration in terms of depression, whereas children from non-poor households are more affected by parental migration in terms of subjective happiness. This paper examines the transmission mechanism between parental migration and the psychological well-being of children, provides a perspective of household economic conditions for child psychology and offers useful insights for family education and government policymaking in this area.
Journal Article