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Background. Osteoarthritis (OA) has traditionally been regarded as a degenerative disease, with inflammation playing only a marginal role. However, recent evidence suggests that synovitis may significantly contribute to OA pathophysiology. This study aimed to describe the grade of synovitis and the distribution of synovial histological pathotypes in patients with advanced OA undergoing joint replacement, and to explore associations with clinical, laboratory, and radiographic variables.   Materials and Methods. A retrospective observational study was conducted on patients with OA who underwent primary total hip or knee arthroplasty between 2000 and 2024. Synovial membrane samples collected during surgery were analyzed histologically using hematoxylin-eosin staining and immunohistochemistry. The Krenn synovitis score was applied to assess inflammation severity. Based on cellular composition, samples were classified into three main synovial pathotypes: lympho-myeloid, diffuse myeloid, and pauci-immune. Clinical and laboratory data (including ESR, CRP, BMI, Kellgren-Lawrence grade, and rheumatologic history) were retrieved from medical records. Associations between histological features and clinical parameters were evaluated through univariate and multivariate logistic regression.   Resulus. Ninety-nine patients were included (mean age 74 ± 11 years; 51.5% female). High-grade synovitis (Krenn score above 4) was observed in 62.6% of cases. The most frequent synovial pathotype was lympho-myeloid (57.6%), followed by pauci-immune (30.3%) and diffuse myeloid (12.1%). No significant differences in synovitis grade or pathotype distribution were found between hips and knees (Figure 1). The Krenn score was significantly higher in lympho-myeloid samples (mean 5.8 ± 1.0 vs. 4.3 ± 1.1; p < 0.001). Histology revealed greater cellularity, organized lymphoid aggregates, and abundant CD20+, CD3+ infiltrates in this pathotype, along with increased synovial hyperplasia and neoangiogenesis. At multivariate analysis, Kellgren-Lawrence grade was independently associated with the lympho-myeloid pathotype (OR 1.763; 95% CI 1.041–2.984; p = 0.035; figure 2). Elevated ESR (>20 mm/h) showed a non-significant trend toward association (OR 1.622; p = 0.091), while age, sex, BMI, and CRP were not predictive. Lympho-myeloid pathotype was associated with higher VAS pain scores (mean 7.2 vs. 6.0; p = 0.048) and longer disease duration (mean 9.6 vs. 6.4 years; p = 0.031).   Conclusions. This study reveals a high prevalence of both high-grade synovitis and the lympho-myeloid pathotype in patients with advanced OA undergoing joint replacement. These findings challenge the traditional view of OA as a purely degenerative disease and support the concept that distinct inflammatory phenotypes may exist within OA. The presence of structured immune infiltrates and their association with structural damage, pain severity, and disease chronicity suggest a pathogenic and prognostic role of synovial inflammation. Further studies are warranted to define the clinical implications of synovial pathotypes and their relevance for therapeutic strategies.

Escherichia coli are remarkably versatile microorganisms and important members of the normal intestinal microbiota of humans and animals. This harmless commensal organism can acquire a mixture of comprehensive mobile genetic elements that contain genes encoding virulence factors, becoming an emerging human pathogen capable of causing a broad spectrum of intestinal and extraintestinal diseases. Nine definite enteric E. coli pathotypes have been well characterized, causing diseases ranging from various gastrointestinal disorders to urinary tract infections. These pathotypes employ many virulence factors and effectors subverting the functions of host cells to mediate their virulence and pathogenesis. This review summarizes new developments in our understanding of diverse virulence factors associated with encoding genes used by different pathotypes of enteric pathogenic E. coli to cause intestinal and extraintestinal diseases in humans.

Abstract Escherichia coli is the most researched microbial organism in the world. Its varied impact on human health, consisting of commensalism, gastrointestinal disease, or extraintestinal pathologies, has generated a separation of the species into at least eleven pathotypes (also known as pathovars). These are broadly split into two groups, intestinal pathogenic E. coli (InPEC) and extraintestinal pathogenic E. coli (ExPEC). However, components of E. coli’s infinite open accessory genome are horizontally transferred with substantial frequency, creating pathogenic hybrid strains that defy a clear pathotype designation. Here, we take a birds-eye view of the E. coli species, characterizing it from historical, clinical, and genetic perspectives. We examine the wide spectrum of human disease caused by E. coli, the genome content of the bacterium, and its propensity to acquire, exchange, and maintain antibiotic resistance genes and virulence traits. Our portrayal of the species also discusses elements that have shaped its overall population structure and summarizes the current state of vaccine development targeted at the most frequent E. coli pathovars. In our conclusions, we advocate streamlining efforts for clinical reporting of ExPEC, and emphasize the pathogenic potential that exists throughout the entire species. A schematic characterization of the disease manifestations, genomic flexibility, population dynamics, and vaccine targets of Escherichia coli, a multi-faceted bacterium with pathogenic potential throughout the entire species.

Although extraintestinal pathogenic (ExPEC) are designated by their isolation site and grouped based on the type of host and the disease they cause, most diarrheagenic (DEC) are subdivided into several pathotypes based on the presence of specific virulence traits directly related to disease development. This scenario of a well-categorized collapsed after the German outbreak of 2011, caused by one strain bearing the virulence factors of two different DEC pathotypes (enteroaggregative and Shiga toxin-producing ). Since the outbreak, many studies have shown that this phenomenon is more frequent than previously realized. Therefore, the terms hybrid- and hetero-pathogenic have been coined to describe new combinations of virulence factors among the classic pathotypes. In this review, we provide an overview of these classifications and highlight the genomic plasticity that results in some mixed pathotypes displaying novel pathogenic strategies, which lead to a new symptomatology related to diseases. In addition, as the capacity for genome interrogation has grown in the last few years, it is clear that genes encoding some virulence factors, such as Shiga toxin, are found among different pathotypes to which they have not traditionally been associated, perhaps foreshowing their emergence in new and severe outbreaks caused by such hybrid strains. Therefore, further studies regarding hetero-pathogenic and hybrid-pathogenic isolates are necessary to better understand and control the spread of these pathogens.

Swine pathogenic infection caused by Escherichia coli, known as swine colibacillosis, represents an epidemiological challenge not only for animal husbandry but also for health authorities. To note, virulent E. coli strains might be transmitted, and also cause disease, in humans. In the last decades, diverse successful multidrug-resistant strains have been detected, mainly due to the growing selective pressure of antibiotic use, in which animal practices have played a relevant role. In fact, according to the different features and particular virulence factor combination, there are four different pathotypes of E. coli that can cause illness in swine: enterotoxigenic E. coli (ETEC), Shiga toxin-producing E. coli (STEC) that comprises edema disease E. coli (EDEC) and enterohemorrhagic E. coli (EHEC), enteropathogenic E. coli (EPEC), and extraintestinal pathogenic E. coli (ExPEC). Nevertheless, the most relevant pathotype in a colibacillosis scenario is ETEC, responsible for neonatal and postweaning diarrhea (PWD), in which some ETEC strains present enhanced fitness and pathogenicity. To explore the distribution of pathogenic ETEC in swine farms and their diversity, resistance, and virulence profiles, this review summarizes the most relevant works on these subjects over the past 10 years and discusses the importance of these bacteria as zoonotic agents.

Background Plasmodiophora brassicae is the causal agent of clubroot disease of cruciferous plants and one of the biggest threats to the rapeseed (Brassica napus) and brassica vegetable industry worldwide. Disease symptoms In the advanced stages of clubroot disease wilting, stunting, yellowing, and redness are visible in the shoots. However, the typical symptoms of the disease are the presence of club‐shaped galls in the roots of susceptible hosts that block the absorption of water and nutrients. Host range Members of the family Brassicaceae are the primary host of the pathogen, although some members of the family, such as Bunias orientalis, Coronopus squamatus, and Raphanus sativus, have been identified as being consistently resistant to P. brassicae isolates with variable virulence profile. Taxonomy Class: Phytomyxea; Order: Plasmodiophorales; Family: Plasmodiophoraceae; Genus: Plasmodiophora; Species: Plasmodiophora brassicae (Woronin, 1877). Distribution Clubroot disease is spread worldwide, with reports from all continents except Antarctica. To date, clubroot disease has been reported in more than 80 countries. Pathotyping Based on its virulence on different hosts, P. brassicae is classified into pathotypes or races. Five main pathotyping systems have been developed to understand the relationship between P. brassicae and its hosts. Nowadays, the Canadian clubroot differential is extensively used in Canada and has so far identified 36 different pathotypes based on the response of a set of 13 hosts. Effectors and resistance After the identification and characterization of the clubroot pathogen SABATH‐type methyltransferase PbBSMT, several other effectors have been characterized. However, no avirulence gene is known, hindering the functional characterization of the five intercellular nucleotide‐binding (NB) site leucine‐rich‐repeat (LRR) receptors (NLRs) clubroot resistance genes validated to date. Important Link Canola Council of Canada is constantly updating information about clubroot and P. brassicae as part of their Canola Encyclopedia: https://www.canolacouncil.org/canola‐encyclopedia/diseases/clubroot/. Phytosanitary categorization PLADBR: EPPO A2 list; Annex designation 9E. The clubroot pathogen wants to conquer the world, and how better than through social media. This Plasmodiophora brassicae profile highlights how the growers are in a constant fight with this devastating pathogen. Art by C.‐É. Brochu.

Feline infectious peritonitis (FIP) is a fatal disease that poses several challenges for veterinarians: clinical signs and laboratory changes are non-specific, and there are two pathotypes of the etiologic agent feline coronavirus (FCoV), sometimes referred to as feline enteric coronavirus (FECV) and feline infectious peritonitis virus (FIPV) that vary fundamentally in their virulence, but are indistinguishable by a number of diagnostic methods. This review focuses on all important steps every veterinary practitioner has to deal with and new diagnostic tests that can be considered when encountering a cat with suspected FIP with the aim to establish a definitive diagnosis. It gives an overview on all available direct and indirect diagnostic tests and their sensitivity and specificity reported in the literature in different sample material. By providing summarized data for sensitivity and specificity of each diagnostic test and each sample material, which can easily be accessed in tables, this review can help to facilitate the interpretation of different diagnostic tests and raise awareness of their advantages and limitations. Additionally, diagnostic trees depict recommended diagnostic steps that should be performed in cats suspected of having FIP based on their clinical signs or clinicopathologic abnormalities. These steps can easily be followed in clinical practice.

Most Escherichia coli strains live harmlessly in the intestines and rarely cause disease in healthy individuals. Nonetheless, a number of pathogenic strains can cause diarrhea or extraintestinal diseases both in healthy and immunocompromised individuals. Diarrheal illnesses are a severe public health problem and a major cause of morbidity and mortality in infants and young children, especially in developing countries. E. coli strains that cause diarrhea have evolved by acquiring, through horizontal gene transfer, a particular set of characteristics that have successfully persisted in the host. According to the group of virulence determinants acquired, specific combinations were formed determining the currently known E. coli pathotypes, which are collectively known as diarrheagenic E. coli. In this review, we have gathered information on current definitions, serotypes, lineages, virulence mechanisms, epidemiology, and diagnosis of the major diarrheagenic E. coli pathotypes.

The resistance of different pathogenic variants of E. coli to antibiotics, is a health concern globally. The study assessed the resistance of 90 E. coli isolates that survived chlorination at a Wastewater Treatment Plant (WWTP) in North West, South Africa (NW-SA), to 12 different antibiotics using the Kirby-Bauer disk diffusion method. The study further assessed the diarrheagenic pathotypes origin of the isolates. The molecular characterization revealed diarrheagenic E. coli pathotypes ranged as follows: Enteroaggregative E. coli (EAEC) 16 (17.78%), Enteroinvasive E. coli (EIEC) 6 (6.67%), Enterotoxigenic E. coli (ETEC) 5 (5.56%) and Enteropathogenic E. coli (EPEC) 3 (3.33%). A high degree of resistance was observed against sulphamethoxazol (92.22%), while lower resistance was observed against Kanamycin (3.33%), chloramphenicol (5.56%) and ciprofloxacin (6.67%). Multiple drug resistance of three and more antibiotics was observed in 81.11% of the E. coli isolates. The detected diarrheagenic E. coli pathotypes showed multiple resistance to different studied antibiotics with Multiple Antibiotic Resistance Indexing (MARI) equal to 0.9 for EIEC and EAEC respectively, followed by ETEC at 0.8 and EPEC at 0.2. The study reveals that the wastewater effluent from the studied plant serves as an important reservoir for the distribution of antibiotic resistant diarrheagenic E. coli pathotypes and other potential pathogens to the aquatic milieu, thus confirming potential risk to public health.

Background Escherichia coli ( E. coli ) serves as a common indicator of gut microbiota and is utilized for monitoring antimicrobial resistance determinants in food-producing animals. This study aimed to investigate antimicrobial resistance patterns in virulence gene-positive E. coli isolates obtained from 340 healthy and diarrheic calves. Methods and results A total of 340 fecal swab samples were obtained from diarrheic (n = 170) and healthy (n = 170) calves for 12 months from different farms in Kerman, Iran. The samples were phenotypically analyzed to detect E. coli isolates and antibiotic resistance. Also, antimicrobial resistance genes, diarrheagenic E. coli pathotypes, and phylogenetic background were screened by PCR. Fifteen percent (51/340) of E. coli isolates were positive for at least one of the examined virulence genes (VGs); the prevalence of VGs in E. coli isolates from healthy calves (36/170; 21.17%) was higher than that in diarrheic cases (15/170; 8.82%). Out of the 51 VG-positive isolates, six pathotypes including Shiga toxin-producing E. coli (STEC; 27.45%), enterotoxigenic E. coli (ETEC; 23.52%), enterohemorrhagic E. coli (EHEC; 19.6%), necrotoxigenic E. coli (NTEC; 19.6%), enteropathogenic E. coli (EPEC; 15.68%), enteroinvasive E. coli (EIEC; 1.96%) and three hybrid pathotypes including ETEC/STEC, ETEC/EHEC, and STEC/EIEC were detected among the strains. Antimicrobial resistance (AR) was observed in 98.03% of the VG-positive isolates, which was the same for both healthy and diarrheic calves. The maximum prevalence rate of AR was found against trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole (49.01%; 3/51), while the minimum prevalence rate was against gentamycin (5.88%; 25/51). Among the VG-positives, phylotype A was found to be the most prevalent followed by B1 and D phylotypes. Conclusions The prevalence of VG-positive E. coli isolates was higher in healthy calves compared to diarrheic cases. AR was widespread among VG-positive isolates. These findings suggest that calves may serve as potential reservoirs of antimicrobial-resistant hybrid pathotypes of E. coli .