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Small ruminants (e.g., sheep and goats) contribute considerably to the cash income and nutrition of small farmers in most countries in Africa and Asia. Their husbandry is threatened by the highly infectious transboundary viral disease peste des petits ruminants (PPR) caused by peste-des-petits-ruminants virus (PPRV). Given its social and economic impact, PPR is presently being targeted by international organizations for global eradication by 2030. Since its first description in Côte d’Ivoire in 1942, and particularly over the last 10 years, a large amount of molecular epidemiological data on the virus have been generated in Africa. This review aims to consolidate these data in order to have a clearer picture of the current PPR situation in Africa, which will, in turn, assist authorities in global eradication attempts.

Here, we report the discovery of two viruses associated with a disease characterized by severe diarrhea on a large-scale goat farm in Jilin province. Electron Microscopy observations revealed two kinds of virus particles with the sizes of 150–210 nm and 20–30 nm, respectively. Detection of 276 fecal specimens from the diseased herds showed the extensive infection of peste des petits ruminants virus (63.77%, 176/276) and caprine enterovirus (76.81%, 212/276), with a co-infection rate of 57.97% (160/276). These results were partially validated with RT-PCR, where all five PPRV-positive and CEV-positive specimens yielded the expected size of fragments, respectively, while no fragments were amplified from PPRV-negative and CEV-negative specimens. Moreover, corresponding PPRV and CEV fragments were amplified in PPRV and CEV double-positive specimens. Histopathological examinations revealed severe microscopic lesions such as degeneration, necrosis, and detachment of epithelial cells in the bronchioles and intestine. An immunohistochemistry assay detected PPRV antigens in bronchioles, cartilage tissue, intestine, and lymph nodes. Simultaneously, caprine enterovirus antigens were detected in lung, kidney, and intestinal tissues from the goats infected by the peste des petits ruminants virus. These results demonstrated the co-infection of peste des petits ruminants virus with caprine enterovirus in goats, revealing the tissue tropism for these two viruses, thus laying a basis for the future diagnosis, prevention, and epidemiological survey for these two virus infections.

Peste des petits ruminants (PPR) disease was first confirmed in Tanzania in 2008 in sheep and goats in Ngorongoro District, northern Tanzania, and is now endemic in this area. This study aimed to characterise PPR disease in pastoralist small ruminant flocks in Ngorongoro District. During June 2015, 33 PPR-like disease reports were investigated in different parts of the district, using semi-structured interviews, clinical examinations, PPR virus rapid detection test (PPRV-RDT), and laboratory analysis. Ten flocks were confirmed as PPRV infected by PPRV-RDT and/or real-time reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR), and two flocks were co-infected with bluetongue virus (BTV), confirmed by RT-qPCR. Phylogenetic analysis of six partial N gene sequences showed that the PPR viruses clustered with recent lineage III Tanzanian viruses, and grouped with Ugandan, Kenyan and Democratic Republic of Congo isolates. No PPR-like disease was reported in wildlife. There was considerable variation in clinical syndromes between flocks: some showed a full range of PPR signs, while others were predominantly respiratory, diarrhoea, or oro-nasal syndromes, which were associated with different local disease names (olodua—a term for rinderpest, olkipiei—lung disease, oloirobi—fever, enkorotik—diarrhoea). BTV co-infection was associated with severe oro-nasal lesions. This clinical variability makes the field diagnosis of PPR challenging, highlighting the importance of access to pen-side antigen tests and multiplex assays to support improved surveillance and targeting of control activities for PPR eradication.

Peste des Petits Ruminants (PPR) is a major transboundary disease in Ethiopia, where the national goal is eradication by 2027. However, evidence on vaccination performance and operational challenges remains limited. This study assessed vaccination trends over six years (September 2018–August 2024) and conducted surveys with animal health professionals (AHPs) (January–May 2024) to identify key enabling factors and constraints influencing eradication efforts in the North Shewa Zone. The findings revealed that a risk-based vaccination strategy (RBVS) has been implemented since 2018, focusing on high-risk areas and employing rapid antigen detection tests to confirm outbreaks. Once an outbreak is confirmed, AHPs collaborate with regional coordinators to isolate at-risk populations and administer a live attenuated PPR vaccine. Over the study period, 62 vaccination campaigns were conducted, averaging 10.3 campaigns per year. The highest number occurred in 2019 (16 campaigns, 25.81%), while the lowest was in 2022 (one campaign). Kewet district recorded the highest number of campaigns (six), whereas six districts received no vaccinations. A total of 2,917,330 small ruminants were vaccinated, with Minjar-Shenkora district reporting the highest number (384,989 animals). The year 2023 saw the peak in vaccination coverage, with 1,284,339 animals vaccinated. The study identified factors affecting eradication efforts, with key enablers including a national policy (82.6%), sufficient vaccine production (71.74%), and adequate vaccination tools (80.43%). Major challenges included budget constraints (84.78%) and security concerns (65.22%), along with operational issues such as lack of animal identification, absence of post-vaccination sero-monitoring (PVS), high herd mobility, and rapid turnover of young stock. In conclusion, these challenges may compromise vaccination effectiveness and hinder eradication efforts. Nevertheless, strong regional commitment and enabling factors provide a promising foundation for progress. To enhance PPR control and achieve eradication, the study recommends strengthening surveillance, improving post-vaccination sero-monitoring, optimizing vaccine distribution, and addressing key operational barriers.

Peste des petits ruminants (PPR) is a highly contagious disease affecting sheep and goats, caused by PPR virus (PPRV), a member of the genus Morbillivirus . In 2023 and 2024, on testing of suspected clinical samples for PPR received through passive surveillance of sheep and goat flocks in various states of India resulted in the documentation of 15 laboratory-confirmed outbreaks of PPR. During the outbreak investigation, morbidity and significant mortality rates were observed, and clinical samples collected from the affected flocks were tested using ELISA and RT-PCR, confirming the presence of PPRV. We studied in detail nine out of 15 confirmed outbreaks for characterization of virus including partial sequencing of nucleocapsid (N) and fusion (F) genes of the PPRV. In addition, the virus from each outbreak was isolated from tissue and swab samples by blind passage in Vero cells. Phylogenetic analysis based on partial N gene sequences revealed that all of the Indian isolates belonged to Asian lineage IV. This study confirms that all of the cases of PPR reported so far in India have been caused by PPRV lineage IV.

Peste des petits ruminants (PPR) is an extremely contagious viral disease that significantly affects the health of small ruminants and the economies of livestock, particularly in areas adjacent to endemic regions. This study focused on assessing the vulnerability of different domestic and wild animal species in Kazakhstan, which includes local sheep and goats, African Cameroon goats, saigas, calves, and ground squirrels, to infection by the PPR virus (PPRV). Experimental infections used a virulent strain of PPRV (Nigeria 76/1), with animals being monitored over a period of 21–28 days to evaluate clinical signs, pathological lesions, and viral dissemination. The manifestation of disease differed across species, breed, and age. In Cameroon, goats and saigas displayed severe illness with a mortality rate of 100% and elevated virus levels in key organs, whereas local sheep and goats presented age-related subacute, abortive, and latent manifestations. Calves exhibited mild, subclinical infections, while ground squirrels showed no susceptibility. Viral shedding was observed in the secretions of infected animals, with transmission occurring through airborne and alimentary pathways. No virus carriage was detected in the animals that had recovered. The investigation emphasizes the notable variations in PPRV pathogenesis and transmission risk among different species, highlighting the necessity for focused surveillance and control strategies to avert incursions in PPR-free areas like Kazakhstan.

Peste des petits ruminants virus (PPRV) has been classified into four lineages based on the nucleocapsid and fusion genes, with lineage IV strains being the most widely distributed. In Africa, recent epidemiological data revealed that PPRV lineage IV is increasingly displacing other lineages in prevalence, suggesting a competitive advantage in viral transmission and adaptability. Moreover, a lineage IV strain was the only confirmed strain in Europe and Asia. In this study, a one-step Taqman quantitative real-time reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR) assay for lineage IV PPRV was established by targeting the hemagglutinin (H) gene. The results indicated that this method could detect approximately six copies of PPRV RNA, indicating high sensitivity. No cross-reactions with related viruses or other lineages of PPRV were observed. The results of a repeatability test indicated that the coefficient of variation values were low in both the inter-assay and intra-assay experimental groups. Detection of field samples indicated that all positive samples could be detected successfully using the developed method. This RT-qPCR assay provides a valuable tool to facilitate targeted surveillance and rapid differential diagnosis in regions with active circulation of PPRV lineage IV, enabling timely epidemiological investigations and strain-specific identification.

The present study aimed to investigate the episodes of per-acute mortality due to peste des petits ruminants (PPR) that resulted in the death of 30 animals of different species of cervids, namely, barking deer, four-horned antelope, hog deer, thamin, and mouse deer in the State Zoo of Assam, a northeastern state of India. The affected animals showed no to limited clinical signs. However, the necropsy and histopathological findings were highly suggestive of PPR virus (PPRV) infection observed in domestic small ruminants. Representative tissue samples were screened for the presence of PPRV along with blue tongue virus (BTV) and epizootic hemorrhagic disease virus (EHDV) using RT-PCR or RT-qPCR and were found to be positive for PPRV. Considering the sudden outbreak of PPR in captive cervids, we sought to determine the role of domestic goats as the potential spillover host. To verify that, archived tissue samples of domestic goats collected during PPRV outbreaks in nearby localities and slaughtered goats used as meat for Carnivorous animals in the State Zoo were also screened and found to be positive for PPRV in RT-PCR. Phylogenetic analysis based on the Nucleocapsid (N) protein gene of PPRV from infected cervids, domestic goats, and goat meat revealed the virus to be of Lineage IV origin. Our findings provide evidence of probable spillover of PPRV from domestic goats to captive endangered cervids and circulation of Lineage IV PPRV strains among the small-ruminant population of this region.

Peste des petits ruminants (PPR) is a viral disease which primarily affects small ruminants, causing significant economic losses for the livestock industry in developing countries. It is endemic in Saharan and sub-Saharan Africa, the Middle East and the Indian sub-continent. The primary hosts for peste des petits ruminants virus (PPRV) are goats and sheep; however recent models studying the pathology, disease progression and viremia of PPRV have focused primarily on goat models. This study evaluates the tissue tropism and pathogenesis of PPR following experimental infection of sheep and goats using a quantitative time-course study. Upon infection with a virulent strain of PPRV, both sheep and goats developed clinical signs and lesions typical of PPR, although sheep displayed milder clinical disease compared to goats. Tissue tropism of PPRV was evaluated by real-time RT-PCR and immunohistochemistry. Lymph nodes, lymphoid tissue and digestive tract organs were the predominant sites of virus replication. The results presented in this study provide models for the comparative evaluation of PPRV pathogenesis and tissue tropism in both sheep and goats. These models are suitable for the establishment of experimental parameters necessary for the evaluation of vaccines, as well as further studies into PPRV-host interactions.

Peste des petits ruminants (PPR) is an acute, highly contagious viral disease caused by Peste des petits ruminants virus (PPRV). PPR has inflicted severe economic losses on livestock industries across numerous countries in Africa, Asia, and Europe, posing a significant threat to the survival of endangered wild ruminant species. In this study, we performed prokaryotic expression of the PPRV nucleocapsid (N) protein and prepared rabbit-derived polyclonal antibodies (pAbs). We also identified the characteristics of two mouse-derived monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) against the PPRV N protein. The selected mAb was labeled with horseradish peroxidase (HRP). A double antibody sandwich enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (DAS-ELISA) was established to detect PPRV antigen using rabbit-derived pAbs and HRP-conjugated mAbs. The threshold for the DAS-ELISA was determined to be 0.227. The DAS-ELISA demonstrated minimum detection limits of 0.195 μg/mL for the recombinant PPRV N protein and 250 50% tissue culture infectious dose (TCID 50 ) for PPRV. Of note, the assay exhibited no cross-reactivity with Capripoxvirus (CaPV), Orf virus (ORFV), Lumpy skin disease virus (LSDV), Foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV), or Parainfluenza virus 5 (PIV5). The repeatability of the DAS-ELISA was validated with both intra-assay and inter-assay coefficients of variation (CV%) being less than 9%, indicating good repeatability. Compared to the results obtained using the commercial ID Vet kit (ID-Vet, Montpellier, France) for PPRV antigen detection on the 240 tissue samples, the DAS-ELISA showed a concordance rate of 93.75% and a kappa value of 0.86, demonstrating the reliability of the developed method. The results showed that the DAS-ELISA established in this study is a reliable diagnostic method for the PPRV detection. Key points • Polyclonal and monoclonal antibodies against PPRV N protein were prepared. • A DAS-ELISA based on mAbs and pAbs for detecting virus infection was developed. • The established DAS-ELISA exhibits excellent sensitivity and specificity.