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Main conclusion Omics approaches provide comprehensive insights into plant arsenic stress responses, setting the stage for engineering arsenic-tolerant crops. Understanding arsenic (As) toxicity in plants is crucial for environmental and agricultural sustainability, considering the implications of As in impacting soil productivity and environmental health. Although some articles already examined the detailed molecular mechanisms behind As toxicity and tolerance, a comprehensive review of recent omics advancements in studying plant responses to As exposure is needed. The present review highlights the valuable contribution of omics approaches (genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics, and metabolomics) to characterize the intricate response to As overall, which could empower As-tolerant plant development. Genomic techniques, such as QTL mapping, GWAS, RAPD, and SSH, hold the potential to provide valuable insights into the genetic diversity and expression patterns associated with the plant response to As stress, highlighting also the power of new advanced technology such as CRISPR–Cas9. Transcriptomics approaches (e.g., microarrays and RNA sequencing) revealed gene expression patterns in plants under As stress, emphasizing the role of sulfur metabolism in As tolerance. Proteomics, using 2-DE combined with MALDI-ToF MS or ESI–MS/MS, offers insights into the stress-inducible proteins and their involvement in As toxicity mitigation, while iTRAQ-based proteomics enabled an understanding of cultivar-specific responses under high As concentration. Metabolomics, with LC–MS, GC–MS, (U)HPLC, and NMR, elucidated small molecule alterations and complex metabolic activities occurring under As plant exposure. Compendium of data and evidence-related tools offers a foundation for advancing As-tolerant plant development and promoting environmental and agricultural resilience.

Due to increasingly limited water resources, diminishing farmland acreage, and potentially negative effects of climate change, an urgent need exists to improve agricultural productivity to feed the ever-growing population. Plants interact with microorganisms at all trophic levels, adapting growth, developmental, and defense responses within a complicated network of community members. Endophytic fungi have been widely reported for their ability to aid in the defense of their host plants. Currently, many reports focus on the application of endophytic fungi with the capability to produce valuable bioactive molecules, while others focus on endophytic fungi as biocontrol agents. Plant responses upon endophytic fungi colonization are also good for the immune system of the plant. In this paper, the possible mechanisms between endophytic fungi and their hosts were reviewed. During long-term evolution, plants have acquired numerous beneficial strategies in response to endophytic fungi colonization. The interaction of endophytic fungi with plants modulates the relationship between plants and both biotic and abiotic stresses. It has previously been reported that this endophytic relationship confers additional defensive mechanisms on the modulation of the plant immune system, as the result of the manipulation of direct antimicrobial metabolites such as alkaloids to indirect phytohormones, jasmonic acid, or salicylic acid. Furthermore, plants have evolved to cope with combinations of stresses and experiments are required to address specific questions related to these multiple stresses. This review summarizes our current understanding of the intrinsic mechanism to better utilize these benefits for plant growth and disease resistance. It contributes new ideas to increase plant fitness and crop productivity.

Background Grapevine trunk diseases (GTDs) are a disease complex that pose a serious challenge to vineyard productivity worldwide. Their increasing occurrence, coupled with the absence of effective treatments, turns their incidence one of the biggest obstacles to viticulture. A deeper understanding of grapevine defence mechanisms is essential to develop new strategies for a sustainable disease management. Results This study explored the transcriptome profiling of GTDs symptomatic and asymptomatic plants of ‘Trincadeira’ (a slightly susceptible or tolerant cultivar to GTDs) and ‘Alicante Bouschet’ (a highly susceptible susceptible or susceptible cultivar to GTDs), under natural field conditions. RNA-seq yielded 1 598 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) when comparing cultivars, and 64 DEGs associated with symptomatology, regardless of the cultivar. Transport was revealed as the main biological process involved, predominantly activated in ‘Alicante Bouschet’, indicating a possible link between these genes and disease progression. Conversely, the relative tolerance of ‘Trincadeira’ to this disease complex might be supported by the activation of secondary and hormonal metabolism and the differential expression of a set of defence-related genes, which may act as key factors to limit GTDs infection. An important role of the peroxidase gene PER42 in the inhibition of GTDs symptoms was highlighted in this study. Conclusions Our results provide novel insights into grapevine resistance mechanisms to GTDs and highlight candidate genes for improving disease tolerance. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first transcriptomic study of naturally infected grapevines with multiple trunk pathogens under natural field conditions. By modulating the activation or inhibition of key plant response regulators, it may be possible to enhance resistance, offering sustainable and effective strategies for successful management of GTDs. Clinical trial number Not applicable.

Plants need to deal with antagonists, such as herbivores, while maintaining interactions with mutualists, such as pollinators that help plants to maximize their reproductive output. Although many plant species have inducible defences to save metabolic costs of defence in the absence of herbivores, plant responses induced by herbivore attack can have ecological costs. For example, herbivore‐induced responses can affect flower traits and alter interactions with flower visitors. Such plant‐mediated interactions between herbivores and flower visitors can affect plant reproductive output. Current knowledge on the generality and specificity of plant‐mediated herbivore–flower–visitor interactions and its consequences for plant fitness is limited. In this study, we investigated whether a broad range of herbivores feeding on the annual plant Brassica nigra affect interactions with flower visitors, whether the direction of interactions is predicted by the feeding modes (chewing and sap‐feeding) and sites (above‐ and belowground) of the herbivores, and whether it results in fitness consequences for the plant. Our results show that attack of B. nigra by a range of different herbivores influenced plant interactions with mutualist pollinators and an antagonist florivore, the pollen beetle Meligethes aeneus. Pollinator community composition was affected by herbivory, whereas overall pollinator attraction was maintained. Pollinator community composition of uninfested plants differed from that of chewing and root herbivore‐infested plants. Main responders in the pollinator communities to changes induced by herbivory were syrphid flies, bumblebees, and solitary bees. Although the preference of pollen beetle adults was not affected by herbivory, beetle larvae performed best on plants infested with the nematode Heterodera schachtii. The changes in pollinator community composition and syrphid fly visitation can explain the observed increase in seed set of root herbivore‐infested plants. Interactions of flowering B. nigra plants with mutualist and antagonist insects are well integrated and conflicting interactions do not reduce reproductive output. Our results suggest some degree of specificity in herbivore–flower–visitor interactions with consequences for plant fitness. Specificity of plant responses were determined at the species level as well as the herbivore functional group level, and differed depending on the flower visitor. Because plant reproduction was affected by indirect plant‐mediated interactions, these can potentially result in selection on plant strategies to optimize growth, defence and reproduction. A plain language summary is available for this article. Plain Language Summary

• The phenotypic plasticity of flowering plants in response to herbivore damage to vegetative tissues can affect plant interactions with flower-feeding organisms. Such induced systemic responses are probably regulated by defence-related phytohormones that signal flowers to alter secondary chemistry that affects resistance to florivores. Current knowledge on the effects of damage to vegetative tissues on plant interactions with florivores and the underlying mechanisms is limited. • We compared the preference and performance of two florivores on flowering Brassica nigra plants damaged by one of three herbivores feeding from roots or leaves. To investigate the underlying mechanisms, we quantified expression patterns of marker genes for defence-related phytohormonal pathways, and concentrations of phytohormones and glucosinolates in buds and flowers. • Florivores displayed contrasting preferences for plants damaged by herbivores feeding on roots and leaves. Chewing florivores performed better on plants damaged by folivores, but worse on plants damaged by the root herbivore. Chewing root and foliar herbivory led to specific induced changes in the phytohormone profile of buds and flowers. This resulted in increased glucosinolate concentrations for leaf-damaged plants, and decreased glucosinolate concentrations for root-damaged plants. • The outcome of herbivore–herbivore interactions spanning from vegetative tissues to floral tissues is unique for the inducing root/leaf herbivore and receiving florivore combination.

Organisms of the third trophic level can indirectly interact with plants. However, whether parasitoids of herbivores have a positive effect on plant fitness has been controversial. In addition to possible effects on plant fitness, parasitoid‐mitigated herbivory can modify plant physiological responses and thereby alter the plant‐mediated indirect interactions between different herbivore species. These types of indirect multitrophic interactions remain largely unexplored. Thus, to understand the full effect of the third trophic level on plants, it is necessary to consider the context of the community of interacting species, both herbivores and their enemies. Here, we investigated whether parasitoids of leaf‐feeding caterpillars affect plant fitness (seed quantity and quality) and the consequences for seed‐dwelling insects at the second and third trophic levels through plant‐mediated effects. To test this, we exposed lima bean plants (Phaseolus lunatus), under controlled field conditions, to caterpillars (Spodoptera latifascia) that were unparasitized or parasitized by the parasitoid species Cotesia marginiventris. Later in the season, we measured seed production and infestation by seed beetles and their parasitoids. We found that parasitoids significantly reduced the leaf damage inflicted by the caterpillars, such that the plants suffered no loss in seed production. Yet, parasitoids had no effect on the emergence of seed beetles (Zabrotes subfasciatus and Acanthoscelides obtectus), which was equally reduced in plants attacked by unparasitized and by parasitized caterpillars. Seeds from undamaged plants were significantly more attacked by Z. subfasciatus beetles. Parasitism rates of seed beetle larvae were similar for all treatments. Although parasitized caterpillars did not damage the plants enough to reduce seed production (unlike unparasitized caterpillars), the damage they inflicted induced resistance against other herbivores. Taken together, these results show how parasitoids can indirectly enhance plant fitness in the context of the local multitrophic ecological networks. These findings have significant implications for natural and agricultural systems since they reveal that the indirect interaction between plants and parasitoids can be beneficial in communities with multiple herbivore species. Resumen Los parasitoides de herbívoros mejoran la adecuación vegetal sin alterar la resistencia inducida por orugas contra escarabajos de semillas Los organismos del tercer nivel trófico pueden interactuar indirectamente con las plantas. Sin embargo, aún existe la controversia de si los parasitoides de herbívoros tienen un efecto positivo en la adecuación vegetal. Además de los posibles efectos en la adecuación vegetal, la herbivoría mitigada por parasitoides podría modificar las respuestas fisiológicas en las plantas y alterar las interacciones indirectas mediadas por plantas entre diferentes especies de herbívoros. Este tipo de interacciones multitróficas indirectas no han sido suficientemente estudiadas. Por ello, para entender los efectos totales del tercer nivel trófico sobre las plantas, es necesario considerar el contexto de la comunidad de especies interactuantes, incluyendo herbívoros y sus enemigos naturales. En este estudio, investigamos si los parasitoides de orugas folívoras afectan la adecuación de la planta (cantidad y calidad de semillas) y, si esto tiene consecuencias para los insectos de semillas del segundo y tercer nivel trófico a través de efectos mediados por las plantas. Para probar esto, expusimos plantas de frijolillo (Phaseolus lunatus), en condiciones de campo controladas, a orugas (Spodoptera latifascia) no parasitadas o a orugas parasitadas por la especie de parasitoide Cotesia marginiventris. Más adelante en la temporada, medimos la producción de semillas y la infestación por escarabajos de semillas y sus parasitoides. Encontramos que los parasitoides redujeron significativamente el daño a hojas producido por orugas, tal que las plantas no tuvieron una perdida en producción de semillas. Aun así, los parasitoides no tuvieron un efecto en la emergencia de escarabajos de semillas (Zabrotes subfasciatus y Acanthoscelides obtectus), que fue igualmente reducida en plantas atacadas por orugas parasitadas y no parasitadas. Las semillas de plantas no dañadas fueron atacadas por mas escarabajos de Z. subfasciatus. Las tasas de parasitismo en larvas de escarabajos de semillas fueron similares para los tres tratamientos. Mientras que las orugas parasitadas no dañaron suficientemente a las plantas para reducir su producción de semillas, el daño que infligieron sí indujo una resistencia contra otros herbívoros. Estos resultados revelan como los parasitoides pueden mejorar indirectamente la adecuación vegetal dentro del contexto de redes ecológicas locales. Lo anterior tiene implicaciones significativas para sistemas naturales y agrícolas, ya que la interacción indirecta entre plantas y parasitoides puede ser benéfica en una comunidad con múltiples especies de herbívoros. A free Plain Language Summary can be found within the Supporting Information of this article. A free Plain Language Summary can be found within the Supporting Information of this article.

Plants show ontogenetic variation in growth–defence strategies to maximize reproductive output within a community context. Most work on plant ontogenetic variation in growth–defence trade‐offs has focussed on interactions with antagonistic insect herbivores. Plants respond to herbivore attack with phenotypic changes. Despite the knowledge that plant responses to herbivory affect plant mutualistic interactions with pollinators required for reproduction, indirect interactions between herbivores and pollinators have not been included in the evaluation of how ontogenetic growth–defence trajectories affect plant fitness. In a common garden experiment with the annual Brassica nigra, we investigated whether exposure to various herbivore species on different plant ontogenetic stages (vegetative, bud or flowering stage) affects plant flowering traits, interactions with flower visitors and results in fitness consequences for the plant. Effects of herbivory on flowering plant traits and interactions with flower visitors depended on plant ontogeny. Plant exposure in the vegetative stage to the caterpillar Pieris brassicae and aphid Brevicoryne brassicae led to reduced flowering time and flower production, and resulted in reduced pollinator attraction, pollen beetle colonization, total seed production and seed weight. When plants had buds, infestation by most herbivore species tested reduced flower production and pollen beetle colonization. Pollinator attraction was either increased or reduced. Plants infested in the flowering stage with P. brassicae or Lipaphis erysimi flowered longer, while infestation by any of the herbivore species tested increased the number of flower visits by pollinators. Our results show that the outcome of herbivore–flower visitor interactions in B. nigra is specific for the combination of herbivore species and plant ontogenetic stage. Consequences of herbivory for flowering traits and reproductive output were strongest when plants were attacked early in life. Such differences in selection pressures imposed by herbivores to specific plant ontogenetic stages may drive the evolution of distinct ontogenetic trajectories in growth–defence–reproduction strategies and include indirect interactions between herbivores and flower visitors. Synthesis. Plant ontogeny can define the direct and indirect consequences of herbivory. Our study shows that the ontogenetic stage of plant individuals determined the effects of herbivory on plant flowering traits, interactions with flower visitors and plant fitness. Plants show ontogenetic variation in growth–defence strategies to maximize reproductive output within a community context. Our study shows that the ontogenetic stage of plant individuals determined the effects of herbivory on plant flowering traits, interactions with flower visitors and plant fitness. Hence, studies on plant evolution need to consider ecologically relevant timing of herbivory.

1. Genetic variation in individual species can have important ecological consequences, and sometimes, these interactions are mediated through another species. For example, genetic variation in an herbivore could alter plant responses that then influence other plant-associated arthropods. However, few systems have experimentally tested the ecological consequences of genetic variation as mediated through other species, especially within the same trophic community context. 2. I studied how evolution of feeding preference in the willow leaf beetle (Plagiodera versicolora), which occurs under selection in a herbivore community context, feeds back to an arthropod community through plant-mediated indirect interactions. Previous studies show beetle populations locally adapt distinct preferences ranging from the gourmet-type, which feeds exclusively on new leaves of willows, to the no-preference (no-pref) type, which displays non-preferential feeding on leaves of different ages. 3. I conducted field experiments at two sites that mimicked evolutionary changes in the feeding preference of the leaf beetle. I manipulated the composition of leaf beetle feeding types for 6 days in spring and then investigated subsequent development of arthropod communities. I found that initial herbivory by a higher proportion of gourmet-type beetles led to lower subsequent abundance of conspecific beetle larvae. In contrast, a higher proportion of gourmet-type beetles resulted in higher abundance of aphids. Aphid-tending ants also increased with the increasing abundance of aphids. As a result, species diversity of arthropod communities decreased with the proportion of gourmet-type beetles in the initial beetle treatment. 4. Community assembly dynamics were significantly influenced by interactive effects between the initial beetle treatment and subsequent colonizer species identities. Thus, beetle genetic variation had long-lasting effects through a temporal chain of indirect interactions likely mediated through induced plant responses and the abundance of aphids. 5. Synthesis. Evolutionary changes in feeding traits within an herbivore species had profound but predictable impact on local arthropod communities. Because the feeding evolution of herbivores nearly always occurs in a community context, plant-mediated feedback loops between the evolution and ecological community of arthropods may be widespread in nature.

Salinity is one of the major threats faced by the modern agriculture today. It causes multidimensional effects on plants. These effects depend upon the plant growth stage, intensity, and duration of the stress. All these lead to stunted growth and reduced yield, ultimately inducing economic loss to the farming community in particular and to the country in general. The soil conditions of agricultural land are deteriorating at an alarming rate. Plants assess the stress conditions, transmit the specific stress signals, and then initiate the response against that stress. A more complete understanding of plant response mechanisms and their practical incorporation in crop improvement is an essential step towards achieving the goal of sustainable agricultural development. Literature survey shows that investigations of plant stresses response mechanism are the focus area of research for plant scientists. Although these efforts lead to reveal different plant response mechanisms against salt stress, yet many questions still need to be answered to get a clear picture of plant strategy to cope with salt stress. Moreover, these studies have indicated the presence of a complicated network of different integrated pathways. In order to work in a progressive way, a review of current knowledge is critical. Therefore, this review aims to provide an overview of our understanding of plant response to salt stress and to indicate some important yet unexplored dynamics to improve our knowledge that could ultimately lead towards crop improvement.

Most high-yielding rice cultivars developed for irrigated conditions, including the widely grown lowland variety IR64, are highly susceptible to drought stress. This limits their adoption in rainfed rice environments where there is a risk of water shortage during the growing season. Mapping studies using lowland-by-upland rice populations have provided limited information about the genetic basis of variation in yield under drought. One approach to simultaneously improve and understand rice drought tolerance is to generate backcross populations, select superior lines in managed stress environments, and then evaluate which features of the selected lines differ from the recurrent parent. This approach was been taken with IR64, using a range of tolerant and susceptible cultivars as donor parents. Yields of the selected lines measured across 13 widely contracting water environments were generally greater than IR64, but genotype-by-environment effects were large. Traits expected to vary between IR64 and selected lines are plant height, because many donors were not semi-dwarf types, and maturity, because selection in a terminal stress environment is expected to favour earliness. In these experiments it was found that some lines that performed better under upland drought were indeed taller than IR64, but that shorter lines with good yield under drought could also be identified. In trials where drought stress developed in previously flooded (lowland) fields, height was not associated with performance. There was little change in maturity with selection. Other notable differences between IR64 and the selected backcross lines were in their responses to applied ABA and ethylene in greenhouse experiments at the vegetative stage and in leaf rolling observed under chronic upland stress in the field. These observations are consistent with the hypothesis that adaptive responses to drought can effectively allow for improved performance across a broad range of water environments. The results indicate that the yield of IR64 under drought can be significantly improved by backcrossing with selection under stress. In target environments where drought is infrequent but significant in certain years, improved IR64 with greater drought tolerance would be a valuable option for farmers.