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Terrestrial laser scanning (TLS) technology has become increasingly popular in investigating displacement and deformation of natural and anthropogenic objects. Regardless of the accuracy of deformation identification, TLS provides remote comprehensive information about the measured object in a short time. These features of TLS were why TLS measurement was used for a static load test of an old, steel railway bridge. The results of the measurement using the Z + F Imager 5010 scanner and traditional surveying methods (for improved georeferencing) were compared to results of precise reflectorless tacheometry and precise levelling. The analyses involved various procedures for the determination of displacement from 3D data (black & white target analysis, point cloud analysis, and mesh surface analysis) and the need to pre-process the· 3D data was considered (georeferencing, automated filtering). The results demonstrate that TLS measurement can identify vertical displacement in line with the results of traditional measurements down to ±1 mm.

Since the digital levels operate on the principle of image processing of the bar code of levelling rod, recorded by a CCD sensor, the proper lighting (i.e. illumination of the bar code) is important to achieve accurate results. The prevention of inappropriate lighting conditions is important for the correct recording of the image of bar code section. This paper examines the systematic error as a function of the angle of incidence at which an bar code is illuminated by artificial lighting in low light conditions. Further, the procedure of measurements and the analysis of results for the identification of such errors is proposed. The results of experimental measurements highlight the inappropriateness of bar code illumination at an angle of incidence of more than about 45 °. From the practical measurements, it was found that the angle of incidence 55 ° corresponds to an error of about 0.02 mm, which is twice as much as the resolution of the height measurement determined by the manufacturer.

Surface subsidence above salt mines reflects the complex interaction of elastic and viscous deformation processes in rock salt, as well as hydrogeological and structural changes within diapiric formations. This study evaluates long-term ground movements above two Polish salt diapirs: Wapno, affected by catastrophic flooding in 1977, and Kłodawa, where mining continues in selected panels. High-precision levelling records collected over several decades were analysed to determine subsidence magnitude, trough geometry and time-dependent deformation behaviour. In Wapno, suffosion and dissolution caused extensive discontinuous failures, whereas in Kłodawa, deformation remains primarily continuous and controlled by chamber convergence. By introducing and applying the concept of observational capacity, the research highlights the necessity of maintaining geodetic monitoring networks capable of capturing evolving deformation fields. The findings support the implementation of sustained levelling campaigns to ensure infrastructure safety, validate geomechanical models and enhance land-use planning in salt-mining regions.

This study carries out an evaluation of the recent high-degree combined global gravity-field models (EGM2008, EIGEN-6C4, GECO and SGG-UGM-1) over Kenya. The evaluation is conducted using observed geoid undulations (18 data points, mainly in Nairobi area) and free-air gravity anomalies (8,690 data points, covering the whole country). All the four models are applied at full spherical harmonic degree expansion. The standard deviations of the differences between observed and GGMs implied geoid undulations at 18 GPS/levelling points over Nairobi area are ±11.62, ±11.48, ±12.51 and ±11.75 cm for EGM2008, EIGEN-6C4, GECO and SGG-UGM-1, respectively. On the other hand, standard deviations of the differences between observed and GGMs implied free-air gravity anomalies at 8,690 data points over Kenya are ±10.11, ±10.03, ±10.19 and ±10.00 mGal for EGM2008, EIGEN-6C4, GECO and SGG-UGM-1, respectively. These results indicate that the recent high-degree global gravity-field models generally perform at the same level over Kenya. However, EIGEN6C4 performs slightly better than EGM2008, GECO and SGG-UGM-1, considering the independent check provided by GPS/levelling data (admittedly over a small area). These results further indicate a good prospect for the development of a precise gravimetric geoid model over Kenya using EIGEN-6C4 by integrating local terrestrial gravity data in a removecompute-restore scheme.

Critical distance concerns precise digital levelling, which has inaccurate results at a certain sighting distance. The influence of critical distance on a measured height difference has been confirmed by calibrating certain digital levels and their appropriate code devices on a vertical comparator under laboratory conditions. The paper aims to explore the influence of critical distance on height differences obtained by precise digital levels of Leica NA3003 and DNA03 by experimental measurements realised in situ. The processing of the measurement results consisted of defining a random error on a station by using parameter estimation of an error model to specify a partial error on a station dependent on sighting distance. Then the processing phase continues with the finding of the relation between the sighting distance and the dispersion of height differences acquired by digital levelling under terrain conditions. The theoretical part involves the development of levelling accuracy theories that vary over time by view on random and systematic error propagation. The numerical and graphical solution of the experimental measurements involves ordering the height differences into sighting groups according to the sighting distance. The standard deviation computed in each sighting group represents a measure of the dispersion of height differences. Suppose the standard deviation in the sighting group in both independent experimental locations K1 and K2 exceeds twice the total standard deviation. In that case, it is most likely considered to be the influence of the critical distance, which is then compared with values obtained by laboratory calibration of the same digital levels.

Among different sets of constraints and hazards that have to be considered in the management of cities and land use, land surface subsidence is one of the important issues that can lead to many problems, and its economic consequences cannot be ignored. In this study, the ground surface deformation of Gävle city in Sweden is investigated using the Persistent Scatterer Interferometry (PSI) technique as well as analyzing the historical leveling data. The PSI technique is used to map the location of hazard zones and their ongoing subsidence rate. Two ascending and descending Sentinel-1 datasets, collected between January 2015 and May 2020, covering the Gävle city, were processed and analyzed. In addition, a long record of a leveling dataset, covering the period from 1974 to 2019, was used to detect the rate of subsidence in some locations which were not reported before. Our PSI analysis reveals that the center of Gävle is relatively stable with minor deformation ranged between −2 ± 0.5 mm/yr to +2 ± 0.5 mm/yr in vertical and east–west components. However, the land surface toward the northeast of the city is relatively subsiding with a higher annual rate of up to −6 ± 0.46 mm/yr. The comparison at sparse locations shows a close agreement between the subsidence rates obtained from precise leveling and PSI results. The regional quaternary deposits map was overlaid with PSI results and it shows the subsidence areas are mostly located in zones where the subsurface layer is marked by artificial fill materials. The knowledge of the spatio-temporal extents of land surface subsidence for undergoing urban areas can help to develop and establish models to mitigate hazards associated with such land settlement.

Besides precise levels, precise leveling staffs are a crucial part of the measuring equipment when carrying out geodetic (geometric) leveling measurements. The leveling staffs define the scale of the height reference system, so it is important to calibrate them periodically and when necessary. This paper shortly describes the development of the new method of calibrating leveling staffs in the Laboratory for Measurements and Measuring Technique of the Faculty of Geodesy, University of Zagreb. The existing horizontal comparator was upgraded by installing a servo-motorized positioning drive with a mounted CCD camera and telecentric lens that is used to record graduations of the leveling staffs. The software was developed to support the management of the comparator system, as well as for the analysis and processing of images and measurement data and, most importantly, giving the result in the form of a calibration report. The main subject of this paper is a detailed assessment of the measurement uncertainty of determining the position of the edges of the graduation lines and determining the scale of precise centimeter and coded leveling staffs. The estimates were confirmed by experimental measurements.

Three cross-border levelling lines between state levelling networks of Republic of Bulgaria and Republic of North Macedonia are made. The purpose of the realization of these lines is connecting of the state levelling network of Republic of North Macedonia in European Vertical Reference System. That could be made directly through the Bulgarian state levelling network - part of UELN95/98 from 2003. Precise levelling measurements are initialized from the state geodetic agencies - Agency for Real Estate Cadastre of the Republic of North Macedonia (Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia - FYROM) and Agency for Geodesy Cartography and Cadastre of the Republic of Bulgaria. Implemented cross-border levelling lines connect first order levelling lines of the two state levelling networks. As a result are formed two closed levelling polygons. Estimation of connection of the both height systems is made from calculated misclosures. The result of estimation of the realized connection between state levelling networks is valid for the cross border region. The same estimation of connection is made with the height and geopotential data of fundamental nodal benchmarks in the two countries. The achieved results could be successfully used for realization of state levelling network of Macedonia in EVRS.

Peatland surface motion is highly diagnostic of peatland condition. Interferometric Synthetic Aperture Radar (InSAR) can measure this at the landscape scale but requires ground validation. This necessitates upscaling from point to areal measures (80 × 90 m) but is hampered by a lack of data regarding the spatial variability of peat surface motion characteristics. Using a nested precise leveling approach within two areas of upland and low-lying blanket peatland within the Flow Country, Scotland, we examine the multiscale variability of peat surface motion. We then compare this with InSAR timeseries data. We find that peat surface motion varies at multiple scales within blanket peatland with decreasing dynamism with height above the water table e.g., hummocks < lawn < hollows. This trend is dependent upon a number of factors including ecohydrology, pool size/density, peat density, and slope. At the site scale motion can be grouped into central, marginal, and upland peatlands with each showing characteristic amplitude, peak timing, and response to climate events. Ground measurements which incorporate local variability show good comparability with satellite radar derived timeseries. However, current limitations of phase unwrapping in interferometry means that during an extreme drought/event InSAR readings can only qualitatively replicate peat movement in the most dynamic parts of the peatland e.g., pool systems, quaking bog.

To characterize the present‐day vertical displacement field in the active Taiwan orogenic belt, 1843 precise leveling and 199 continuous GPS measurements from 2000 to 2008 are collected and analyzed in this study. Vertical velocities derived from the leveling data are placed in a reference frame of the Chinese continental margin using continuous GPS observations at nearby sites. The leveling and GPS vertical velocities generally reveal a dome‐shaped pattern with uplift of ∼0.2–18.5 mm/yr in the interior of the mountain range and subsidence on the flanks of the mountains and coastal plains. Modern uplift rates in the active fold and thrust belt are generally consistent with geologic uplift rates. However, present‐day uplift rates in the Central Range are faster than the million‐years‐averaged exhumation rates. The modern subsidence rates are generally consistent with geologic rates, except for the rates in western coastal areas due to groundwater pumping. Present‐day subsidence in the southern Central Range and northern Coastal Range is, however, inconsistent with long‐term uplift, which may reflect interseismic elastic strain accumulation across faults. Present‐day subsidence in northern Taiwan occurs in a region of postcollisional orogenic collapse. We model the present‐day and geologic vertical velocities and published GPS horizontal velocity data across southern Taiwan using a 2‐D lithospheric model. The model suggests a combined slip rate of 40 mm/yr on the frontal thrusts and 45 mm/yr on the Longitudinal Valley fault. The model requires an additional source of crustal thickening under the Central Range to match the observed present‐day uplift rates. Key Points Precise leveling and continuous GPS measurements Comparison of short‐term and long‐term displacements Mountain building in Taiwan