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To investigate the response of wheat to drought stress under different plantation systems, two field experiments were carried out in 2021/22 and 2022/23 in Arsanjan, Iran. The main plot was three different plantation systems (flat planting, 60, and 120 cm raised beds) and the sub plots were irrigation levels at 100% (control), 80% (medium stress), and 60% (severe stress) of crop evapotranspiration. Raised bed planting increased grain yield by 24% compared to flat cultivation. This increase for biological yield was about 17%, the number of ears was 7%, and the number of seeds per ear was 21%. Drought stress caused a significant decrease in grain yield (46.4%), number of ears (20.5%), seed number (30.3%), biological yield (45.9%), chlorophyll a (31.8%), chlorophyll b (28.1%) and relative water content (5.3%) and increased, proline content (24.3%) and ion leakage (147.3%). Water use efficiency was increased in raised bed planting and deficit irrigation treatments. The decrease in yield due to drought stress was moderated to some extent in the raised bed system and therefore cultivation on raised beds is suggested as a suitable planting pattern to improve yield and WUE in wheat under conditions similar to the experimental area, especially under water shortage conditions.

Maize is an economically important cereal crop, whose adaptability to a variety of agroecological zones and uses as a food, feed, and input in various industries has ensured its global importance. In this study, the implications of the raised bed planting (RBP) system on smallholder maize farming in Bihar, India, for four consecutive Rabi seasons were evaluated from 2020–2021 to 2023–2024. The research focuses on key parameters such as productivity, profitability, water use efficiency (WUE), and nutrient use efficiency (NUE) to present a sustainable alternative to traditional flatbed planting systems. Maize yield at RBP ranged from 9.28 to 10.53 t ha −1 , significantly higher than the range of 5.70 to 8.29 t ha −1 for flatbed (FB). The raised bed planting (RBP) system was more profitable as well, where net return increased by 20% compared to the FB system. WUE was 35% better in the RBP system, and NUE (grain yield per unit of applied N) was 25% better than FB systems. RBP enhances water and nutrient (nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium) use efficiency, boosting productivity and profitability.

Agriculture is the major economic sector in Asian countries and the majority of their population depends on it. In addition to the largest irrigation system in the Indus basin, Pakistan is suffering from water shortages that are affecting the overall crop production of the country. Different resource conservation technologies (RCTs) such as precision land leveling (PLL), raised bed planting (RBP), and different high-efficiency irrigation systems (HEISs) can be opted for better water productivity. In this study, the potential of these RCTs has been explored to enhance production and save irrigation water through their sustainable adoption. Based on studies by different researchers, water savings up to 47% and yield increases up to 35% have been reported under PLL, while water savings up to 50% and about 10–33% yield increases were observed under RBP. Similarly, under different HEISs, water savings up to 80% and yield increases up to 53% have been reported compared with crops sown under conventional farming. Based on the findings of the researchers regarding RCTs, these have been proved as progressive sowing techniques for better productivity under the limited available water scenario. The detailed review in this paper concludes that RCTs resulting in the improvement of gravity irrigation methods, viz., PLL and RBP, have a great potential of adoption and water productivity improvement at the regional scale in developing countries such as Pakistan, while high-cost HEISs can also be promoted at limited scale among progressive farmers for high-value agriculture.

Purpose Conventional puddling (rice season) and flat planting (wheat season) deteriorate soil properties and induce high mechanical impedance of roots, while increasing nitrogen (N) loss, affecting the normal development of plants and decreasing the yield of post-rice wheat on the Yangtze River Plain, China. Raised bed planting (RBP) may effectively increase wheat productivity. However, how RBP regulates soil properties, root growth and N use efficiency (NUE) is poorly understood. Methods We conducted a two-year (2021/22–2022/23) field experiment to evaluate the effects of flat planting (FP) and RBP with or without fertilization on the soil physical properties and nutrient status, root traits and NUE of post-rice wheat. Results Compared with the FP pattern, the results demonstrated that the RBP pattern generally decreased the soil penetration resistance and soil bulk density at depths of 0–20 cm. Decreased soil penetration resistance and soil bulk density promoted superior root growth, resulting in a significantly greater root mass density, root surface area, root length, specific root surface area, specific root length, root and shoot biomass, and root to shoot ratio. Moreover, the RBP effectively improved the nitrate N (NO 3 − -N) concentration in the 0–20 cm soil layer, reduced NO 3 − -N leaching and infiltration, and enhanced the soil nutrient status. The improved root absorption capacity and increased soil N source contributed to increased N accumulation and NUE under the RBP pattern. Conclusions Our results suggest that the key factors that limits post-rice wheat cultivation are soil compaction and waterlogging. This findings suggest that the RBP pattern may be the optimal agricultural practice for sustainable post-rice wheat production in the Yangtze River region, China.

Permanent raised bed planting with crop residue retention is a form of conservation agriculture that has been proposed as an alternative to conventional tillage for wheat production systems in the Central Highlands of Mexico. A field experiment comparing permanent and tilled raised beds with different residue management under rainfed conditions was started at El Batán (State of Mexico, Mexico) in 1999. The percentage of small and large macroaggregates and mean weight diameter (MWD) was significantly larger in permanent raised beds compared to conventionally tilled raised beds both with full crop residue retention (average for maize and wheat), while the percentages free microaggregates was lower. The percentages of small and large macroaggregates and mean weight diameter (MWD) was significantly larger in permanent raised beds with residue retention compared to permanent raised beds with removal of the residue (average for maize and wheat), while the percentages free microaggregates and silt and clay fraction was lower. Cultivation of maize significantly reduced the large macroaggregates, while wheat reduced the silt and clay fraction (average over all systems). Cultivation of maize reduced the C and N content of the free microaggregates compared to soil cultivated with wheat, while removal of plant residue reduced the C and N content of the silt and clay fraction compared to soil where residue was retained. The C and N content of the coarse particulate organic matter (cPOM) and microaggregates within the macroaggregates was significantly larger in permanent raised beds compared to conventionally tilled raised beds both with full residue retention, while C and N content of the cPOM was significantly lower when residue was removed or partially removed compared to the soil where the residue was retained. The δ ¹³C [per thousand] signatures of the macroaggregates, microaggregates, the silt and clay fraction, cPOM and microaggregates within the macroaggregates were not affected by tillage or residue management when wheat was the last crop, but removal of residue reduced the δ ¹³C [per thousand] signatures of the macro-, microaggregates and microaggregates within the macroaggregates significantly compared to soil where the residue was retained. Retaining only 30-50% of the organic residue still improved the soil structure considerably compared to plots where it was removed completely. Permanent raised beds without residue retention, however, is a practice leading to soil degradation.

By 2050, the global population is expected to increase from 7.7 billion to 9.7 billion, and wheat will remain crucial for ensuring food security worldwide. It supplies food for more than 4.5 billion individuals in 94 countries and constitutes 40% of the primary diet for the global population. It also has 20% protein and 21% calories. An important concern for wheat cultivation is waterlogging stress, which may escalate in occurrence and intensity due to climate change. The raised bed planting pattern was created to reduce the negative impact of waterlogging stress on wheat productivity. The study was conducted during the rabi seasons of 2017–2018 and 2018–2019 to assess the impact of various nutrient management practices on the growth, yield, and yield characteristics of wheat using flat and raised bed planting methods at the crop research farm in Punjab. The study found that wheat cultivated using a raised bed system with recommended nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium showed significantly improved plant height (105.28 cm), number of effective tillers per plant (25.08), spike length (11.67 cm), number of grains per spike (72.50), grain yield (6.97 t/ha), and straw yield (9.39 t/ha) compared to traditional planting techniques. Furthermore, these investigations need to be repeated at various locations with various agro-climatic circumstances.

The sweet potato transplanters of diverse transplanting configurations have been shown to produce various planting properties in relation to different raised bed cropping systems, thus affecting crop growth and yield in sweet potato cultivation. In Shandong Province, a field experiment assessed the effects of three treatments (RB1, mulched raised beds with a finger-clip type transplanter; RB2, bare raised beds with a finger-clip type transplanter; and RB3, bare raised beds with a clamping-plate type transplanter) on soil temperature, plant growth, yield, and economic benefits. With the lowest coefficient variation of plant spacing and planting depth, the RB1 with the finger-clip type transplanter had 6.4% and 6.0% higher temperature at 5–10 cm soil layer by using the plastic-mulch for rapid early slips growth as compared with the RB2 and the RB3, respectively. Consequently, the leaf area index in the RB1 was increased by 5.6% and 6.4% as compared to the RB2 and the RB3, separately. This finally contributed to 57.5–70.8% greater fresh vines weight and 23.8–33.8% higher tubers yield in the RB1 compared with both the RB2 and the RB3 treatments, respectively. In general, in the mulched raised bed system of the Huang-Huai-Hai region of China, the finger-clip type transplanter could be a suitable option for the transplanting of sweet potato slips. In the bare raised bed system, meanwhile, the clamping-plate type transplanter has the potential to increase the production of sweet potatoes.

Aim: Increasing the input use efficiency by planting of guava on raised bed, mulched with black polythene sheet along with fertilizer application through drip and foliar spray of micro-nutrients (zinc and boron). Methodology: Experiment was carried out during 2015-2019 for mrig bahar crop in Lalit guava planted at 3 × 3 m spacing in ICAR-CISH, Lucknow with 5 different treatments (T1 = Raised bed +drip irrigation @ 80% PE + fertigation @ 75% RDF + mulching with 100µ black polythene + micro-nutrient spray in July and August @ 0.2% each of zinc sulphate and boric acid, T2 = Raised bed + drip irrigation + fertigation + mulching, T3 = Raised bed + drip irrigation + fertigation + micronutrient sprays, T4 = Raised bed + drip irrigation +micro-nutrient sprays + soil application of RDF @ 50:25:50 g N:P:K, T5 / control = Flat bed + soil application of RDF + basin irrigation). Results: Canopy volume, trunk-cross sectional area and yield were significantly increased in T1, which could be attributed to better microclimate in root zone, resulting in improved growth and yield. Interpretation: The findings of this research have generated the technique of improving space, water and nutrient use efficiency under high density planting system of guava cv. Lalit in subtropical climate which will help the guava growers for sustaining quality production.

Crop yields remain significantly low in underdeveloped countries, such as Pakistan, primarily due to the prevalent use of traditional farming methods by most farmers. Resource-saving strategies, like ridge and raised flat bed systems, could boost water use efficiency and production per acre. However, further research is needed to investigate the effectiveness of these methods, along with different levels of soil moisture depletion (SMD), on wheat development in the climatic conditions of Sindh Province. Thus, field trials were undertaken at Sindh Agriculture University’s Tandojam for two years (2022 and 2023) during the wheat growing seasons. The experiment included six treatments, viz., T1 (raised flat bed method under 40% depletion), T2 (ridge method under 40% depletion), T3 (raised flat bed method under 50% depletion), T4 (ridge method under 50% depletion), T5 (raised flat bed method under 60% depletion), and T6 (ridge method under 60% depletion). The bed planter was employed to make raised flat beds, and the ridges were prepared using a ridge planter. Wheat variety (TJ-83) was sown. Under all treatments, the plant population, plant height, and seed index were statistically significant (p < 0.05), although spike length, grain spikes−1, and grain weight spikes−1 were non-significant at different SMD levels. To compute water saving through the ridge and raised flat methods, the recommended delta value for wheat crops under the traditional method was used as a benchmark. Both irrigation technologies conserve water compared to traditional irrigation methods. The T5 treatment conserved the most water, followed by T6. Under a 60% depletion level, the ridge approach produced the highest yield of 2175 kg ha−1, compared to 601 kg ha−1 with the raised flat bed method. The best crop water productivity (CWP) of 1.34 kg m−3 was achieved under T6, whereas raised flat beds attained the lowest CWP of 0.27 kg m−3 under T1. In terms of wheat grain production and CWP, the ridge furrow method outperformed the raised flat bed furrow method. Based on the results, it is recommended that farmers should use the ridge furrow method and allow a 60% depletion of soil moisture to obtain a high yield of wheat crops.

By integrating various irrigation and agriculture management techniques, it is possible to considerably improve water productivity. In order to examine the impact of irrigation scheduling (1.0 and 1.2 pan evaporation coefficient), planting method (ridge and raised bed), and potassium silicate foliar application (0 ppm and 100 ppm) on maize ( Zea mays L) growth, yield, and water-related factors, a two-season field experiment was conducted in a hot-dry climate region of southern Egypt during 2017 and 2018. The results showed that the seasonal irrigation requirement and consumptive use were higher at 1.2 than the 1.0 pan evaporation coefficient, irrespective of the planting methods. Raised bed planting method saved about 19% of applied water (two seasons average) compared to the ridge planting method. Plants treated with potassium silicates attained higher yields compared to the control, irrespective of the irrigation level and planting method. Moreover, irrigation at 1.2 pan evaporation resulted in the lowest daily ETc values, i.e., 3.15, 6.0, 6.7, and 2.8 mm for plant growth stages, i.e., ini, dev, mid and late. This resulted in the lowest Kc values (0.47, 0.91, 1.16, and 0.61) at different plant growth stages (ini, dev, mid and late). Based on the study findings, it is recommended to use a deficit irrigation of 0.15% based on accumulated pan evaporation values of 1.2, coupled with raised bed planting method and the application of 100 ppm potassium silicates, for optimal maize water productivity and net return.