Explore the vast range of titles available.

Fresh (frozen/thawed) muscle samples from four 2–12-year-old roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) from the Sondrio province in north-eastern Italy were examined under a dissecting microscope, and about 180 sarcocysts were isolated and identified to morphological type in wet mounts by light microscopy (LM). Seventy-seven of these sarcocysts were subsequently examined by molecular methods, comprising polymerase chain reaction (PCR) amplification and sequencing of the partial cytochrome c oxidase subunit I gene (cox1) of all isolates, as well as PCR amplification, cloning and sequencing of the complete18S ribosomal RNA (rRNA) gene of two isolates of each species found. By LM, three major sarcocyst types were recognised: spindle-shaped sarcocysts, 0.5–3 mm long, either with no clearly recognisable protrusions (thin-walled) or with finger-like protrusions (thick-walled); and slender, thread-like sarcocysts, 2–3 mm long, with hair-like protrusions. Sequencing of cox1 revealed that the sarcocysts belonged to four different species. Those with no visible protrusions either belonged to Sarcocystis gracilis (n = 24) or to a Sarcocystis taeniata-like species (n = 19), whereas those with finger- and hair-like protrusions belonged to Sarcocystis silva (n = 27) and Sarcocystis capreolicanis (n = 7), respectively. The 19 cox1 sequences of the S. taeniata-like species, comprising five haplotypes, differed from each other at 0–16 of 1038 nucleotide positions (98.5–100% identity). They differed from 25 previous cox1 sequences of S. taeniata from moose and sika deer (with 98.0–100% intraspecific identity), at 33–43 nucleotide positions (95.9–96.8% interspecific identity), and there were 20 fixed nucleotide differences between the two populations. In the phylogenetic analysis based on cox1 sequences, the two populations formed two separate monophyletic clusters. The S. taeniata-like species in roe deer was therefore considered to represent a separate species, which was named Sarcocystis linearis n. sp. At the 18S rRNA gene, however, the two species could not be clearly separated from each other. Thus, there was considerable intraspecific sequence variation in the 18S rRNA gene of S. linearis (98.1–99.9% identity between 24 sequences), which was similar both in magnitude and nature to the variation previously found in this gene of S. taeniata. The new 18S rRNA gene sequences of S. linearis shared an identity of 97.9–99.6% with those of S. taeniata (overlap between intra- and interspecific identity), and in the phylogenetic tree, sequences of the two species were interspersed. By scanning electron microscopy (SEM), the sarcocysts of S. linearis were found to possess regularly spaced, thin and narrow ribbon-like cyst wall protrusions (about 2.8–3.2 μm long, 0.3–0.4 μm wide and about 0.02–0.03 μm thick), terminating in a plate-like structure of the same thickness but with an elliptic outline (about 0.3–0.4 μm wide and 0.7–0.9 μm long). The terminal plates were connected in the middle with the band-like portion of the protrusions like the board of a seesaw (tilting board). The terminal plates of adjacent protrusions were neatly arranged in a hexagonal pattern resembling tiles on a roof. Together, they formed an outer roof-like layer facing the surrounding cytoplasm of the host cell and completely covering the band-like proximal portion of the protrusions, which overlapped and were stacked in three to four layers close to the cyst surface. The sarcocyst morphology of S. linearis was consistent with that of an unnamed Sarcocystis sp. in roe deer previously found by transmission electron microscopy in several countries, including Italy. A few sarcocysts of S. gracilis and S. silva were also examined by SEM, confirming the presence of regularly distributed, short knob-like protrusions in S. gracilis (as seen in previous SEM studies) and revealing tightly packed, erect 6–7-μm-long villus-like protrusions having regularly distributed round depressions on their surface in S. silva. The sequencing of cox1 of 7, 24 and 27 new isolates of S. capreolicanis, S. gracilis and S. silva, respectively, recovered 7, 11 and 10 new haplotypes from each of the three species and expanded our knowledge on the intraspecific sequence variation at this marker. Similarly, the study revealed a more extensive intragenomic sequence variation at the 18S rRNA gene of S. capreolicanis and S. silva than known from previous studies and confirmed a near absence of such variation in the 18S rRNA gene of S. gracilis.

In the present study, we describe Sarcocystis entzerothi n. sp. from the European roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) based on the microscopical and DNA analysis. By light microscopy (LM), cysts of S. entzerothi were spindle-shaped with pointed tips, 950–1900 × 70–150 μm in size and had 5–6 μm long finger-like cyst wall protrusions. Cyst wall of S. entzerothi by transmission electron microscopy (TEM) was type 10a-like; villar protrusions were up to 1.2 μm wide, densely packed, lying about 0.1 μm between each other, had profuse microgranules and microfilaments, parasitophorous vacuolar membrane had many minute invaginations, and the ground substance layer measured up to 0.4 μm. This species is morphologically similar to Sarcocystis silva, previously found in the roe deer and the moose (Alces alces). By LM, cysts of S. silva were cigar-shaped with blunted tips, measured 1000–1500 × 130–184 μm, and had 7–8 μm long finger-like cyst wall protrusions. Under TEM, S. silva had no clear differences from S. entzerothi in their cyst wall ultrastructure. Having examined six roe deer hunted in Lithuania, cysts of S. entzerothi and S. silva were identified in four and two animals, respectively. These two Sarcocystis species could be morphologically differentiated according to the shape of the cysts and the length of protrusions. The species examined showed 95.6–96.1 % and 85.6–86.9 % sequence identity within 18S ribosomal DNA (rDNA) and cox1, respectively, and therefore they could be clearly distinguished by means of molecular methods. It should be noted that in the 18S rDNA phylogenetic tree, S. entzerothi from the roe deer was placed together with one sequence of Sarcocystis sp. from the Lithuanian red deer (Cervus elaphus) demonstrating the same species. Based on 18S rDNA and cox1 sequences, S. entzerothi was more closely related to Sarcocystis species transmitted via felids than canids.

The roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) represents a spontaneous model of testicular inactivation: During winter, bucks show a suspension of spermatogenesis that starts again in spring and peaks during the breeding season (July–August). The underlying mechanisms to the regulation of the cyclic testicular changes are still not fully clear but seem to be imputable to the spermatogenic cell line since other testicular cell populations remain stable without apoptotic phenomena. The aim of the study was to investigate apoptosis, gelatinases (MMP2 and 9), their inhibiting factors (TIMP 1-2), and two isoforms of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF121 and 165) with its receptors (VEGFR1-2) in testes collected during pre- and post-rut periods, and to correlate them with testicular weight (TW) and testosterone (TEST). Testes from 18 adult sexually mature bucks were collected in Bologna Apennines (Italy). Samples were weighed and parenchyma collected. Radioimmunoassay, real-time PCR, and zymography were performed. The results showed a post-rut decrease in TW and TEST and an increase in proMMP2, also highlighting a correlation between the gelatinases and the testicular functionality. The VEGF pattern did not show modifications nor correlation with TW and TEST. Overall, gelatinases and their inhibitors, described herein for the first time in roe deer testes, seem to play an important role in the testicular cycle.

Background Although astroviruses (AstV) have been detected in a variety of host species, there are only limited records of their occurrence in deer. One of the most important game species in Europe, due to its meat and antlers, is roe deer. Infected game animals can pose a threat to the health of other animals and of humans, so more attention needs to be focused on understanding the diversity of viruses in wildlife. The complete genome and organization of the roe deer AstV genome have not so far been described. Results In our study, 111 game animals were screened for the presence of AstV. While no AstVs were detected in red deer, wild boar, chamois and mouflon, AstV RNA was present in three samples of roe deer. They were further subjected to whole genome sequencing with next generation sequencing. In this study, two AstV genomes were assembled; one in sample D5–14 and one in sample D12–14, while, in sample D45–14, no AstV sequences were identified. The complete coding sequences of the AstV SLO/D5–14 strain genome and of the almost complete genome of the AstV SLO/D12–14 strain were determined. They showed a typical Mamastrovirus organization. Phylogenetic analyses and amino acid pairwise distance analysis revealed that Slovenian roe deer AstV strains are closely related to each other and, also, related to other deer, bovine, water buffalo, yak, Sichuan takin, dromedary, porcine and porcupine AstV strains - thus forming a highly supported group of currently unassigned sequences. Conclusions Our findings suggest the existence of a new Mamastrovirus genogroup might be constituted while this aforementioned group is distantly related to Mamastrovirus genogroups I and II. In this study, additional data supporting a novel taxonomic classification are presented.

Study of dimensions (biometry) and shapes (geometric morphometry) of bone structures in ungulates is of extreme importance in wildlife population management. Unlike classical biometry, which involves the use of a caliper for measurements, geometric morphometry acquires, through software, a series of reference points (landmarks) from digital photos, providing a series of linear measures. A method to convert values obtained from the GeoGebra software into biometric measures is described. We took photos of 25 mandibles of adult roe deer and at the same time measured mandible length and teeth row length using a caliper. After image processing using GeoGebra, we calculated the conversion factor as the mean ratio between measures taken using GeoGebra and the caliper. The series of measurements, taken with two different methods (direct measurement using the caliper and conversion from GeoGebra output), showed a good degree of agreement. We used the conversion factor to obtain, from the GeoGebra database, four additional parameters of 50 mandibles. The analysis of variance showed that one parameter was significantly different between sexes (p = 0.04), demonstrating the usefulness of the measurement conversion. The conversion factor is helpful to improve classical biometric databases to better clarify the relationship between environment and wildlife status.

The purpose of this study was to compare the effect of the presence of protozoa in the rumen of wild roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) on the bacteria composition and digestion rate of the main carbohydrates of forage. The research material involved rumen content and rumen fluid, which were collected in the autumn-winter season, from eight adult males of roe deer with an average body mass of 22.6 kg. The microscopic analysis demonstrated that there were only protozoa in 50% of the animals sampled. Qualitative analysis revealed the presence of protozoa belonging to the genus Entodinium. The density of protozoal population varied from 6.5 to 38.7 × 105/mL rumen fluid. The analysis of bacteria composition indicated that protozoa did not have an effect on bacterial diversity. Furthermore, the results of hydrolytic activity revealed that the fastest digestion of carbohydrates was for pectin, while the slowest was inulin. The pH and redox potential in the rumen varied from 5.9 to 6.1 and from −248.1 to −251.1 mV, respectively. In summary, the presence of protozoa in the rumen of wild roe deer does not have an effect on the bacterial population and has no effect on the digestion rate of carbohydrates in the rumen.

Many animals restrict their movements to a characteristic home range. This constrained pattern of space use is thought to result from the foraging benefits of memorizing the locations and quality of heterogeneously distributed resources. However, due to the confounding effects of sensory perception, the role of memory in home-range movement behavior lacks definitive evidence in the wild. Here, we analyze the foraging decisions of a large mammal during a field resource manipulation experiment designed to disentangle the effects of memory and perception. We parametrize a mechanistic model of spatial transitions using experimental data to quantify the cognitive processes underlying animal foraging behavior and to predict how individuals respond to resource heterogeneity in space and time. We demonstrate that roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) rely on memory, not perception, to track the spatiotemporal dynamics of resources within their home range. Roe deer foraging decisions were primarily based on recent experience (half-lives of 0.9 and 5.6 d for attribute and spatial memory, respectively), enabling them to adapt to sudden changes in resource availability. The proposed memory-based model was able to both quantify the cognitive processes underlying roe deer behavior and accurately predict how they shifted resource use during the experiment. Our study highlights the fact that animal foraging decisions are based on incomplete information on the locations of available resources, a factor that is critical to developing accurate predictions of animal spatial behavior but is typically not accounted for in analyses of animal movement in the wild.

Deer (Cervidae) are key components of many ecosystems and estimating deer abundance or density is important to understanding these roles. Many field methods have been used to estimate deer abundance and density, but the factors determining where, when, and why a method was used, and its usefulness, have not been investigated. We systematically reviewed journal articles published during 2004–2018 to evaluate spatio-temporal trends in study objectives, methodologies, and deer abundance and density estimates, and determine how they varied with biophysical and anthropogenic attributes. We also reviewed the precision and bias of deer abundance estimation methods. We found 3,870 deer abundance and density estimates. Most estimates (58%) were for white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus), red deer (Cervus elaphus), and roe deer (Capreolus capreolus). The 6 key methods used to estimate abundance and density were pedestrian sign (track or fecal) counts, pedestrian direct counts, vehicular direct counts, aerial direct counts, motion-sensitive cameras, and harvest data. There were regional differences in the use of these methods, but a general pattern was a temporal shift from using harvest data, pedestrian direct counts, and aerial direct counts to using pedestrian sign counts and motion-sensitive cameras. Only 32% of estimates were accompanied by a measure of precision. The most precise estimates were from vehicular spotlight counts and from capture–recapture analysis of images from motion-sensitive cameras. For aerial direct counts, capture–recapture methods provided the most precise estimates. Bias was robustly assessed in only 16 studies. Most abundance estimates were negatively biased, but capture–recapture methods were the least biased. The usefulness of deer abundance and density estimates would be substantially improved by 1) reporting key methodological details, 2) robustly assessing bias, 3) reporting the precision of estimates, 4) using methods that increase and estimate detection probability, and 5) staying up to date on new methods. The automation of image analysis using machine learning should increase the accuracy and precision of abundance estimates from direct aerial counts (visible and thermal infrared, including from unmanned aerial vehicles [drones]) and motion-sensitive cameras, and substantially reduce the time and cost burdens of manual image analysis.

This study was performed to determine the arterial vessels of the cranial cervical ganglia of 7 adult roe deer. Latex coloured with a red dye was injected to blood vessels of the cranial cervical ganglion and these vessels were observed with detailed dissections. Especially, the occipital artery and branches that extended to the mandibular gland and to the medial retropharyngeal lenf node of the ascending palatine artery were responsible for the vascularization of the cranial cervical ganglion. Furthermore, the vessel that supplied muscles at the cervical region and separated from the common carotid artery, the ascending pharyngeal artery and middle meningeal artery also participated in the vascularization of the ganglion.

Summary 1. Decreasing rate of migration in several species as a consequence of climate change and anthropic pressure, together with increasing evidence of space-use strategies intermediate between residency and complete migration, are very strong motivations to evaluate migration occurrence and features in animal populations. 2. The main goal of this paper was to perform a relative comparison between methods for identifying and charact erizing migration at the individual and population level on the basis of animal location data. 3. We classified 104 yearly individual trajectories from five populations of three deer species as migratory or non-migratory, by means of three methods: seasonal home range overlap, spatio-temporal separation of seasonal clusters and the Net Squared Displacement (NSD) method. For migr atory cases, we also measured timing and distance of migration and resi- dence time on the summer range. Finally, we comp ared the classification in migration cases across methods and populations. 4. All methods consistently identified migration at the population level, that is, they coherently dis- tinguished between complete or almost complete migr atory populations and partially migratory populations. Ho wever, in the latter case, methods co heren tly classified only about 50% of the sin- gle cases, that is they classified differently at the individual-animal level. We therefore infer that the compariso n of methods may help point to ‘less-stereo typed ’ cases in the residency -to-migration continuum. For ca ses consistently classified by all methods, no signifi cant differences were found in migration distance, or residence time on summer ranges. Timing of migration estimated by NSD was ea rlier than by the other two methods, both for spring and autumn migrations. 5. We suggest three steps to identify improper inferences from migration data and to enhance understanding of intermedia te space-use strategies. We recommend (i) classifying migration behaviours using more than one method, (ii) performing sensitivity analysis on method parame- ters to identify the extent of the differences and (iii) investigating inconsistently classified cases as these may often be ecologically interest ing (i.e. less-stereotyped migratory behaviours). adehabitat, hom e range overlap, movement patterns, Net Squared Displacement, red deer, reindeer, residence behaviour, roe deer, spatial clusters