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The main objective of this paper is to review the literature on and compare the lifecycle costs of full sanitation chain systems in developing cities of Africa and Asia. Overall, financial cost reporting methodologies have been inconsistent and many studies only focus on capital costs or do not report cost data on desludging, transport and treatment. In addition, a comparative analysis of raw cost data across cities and countries would be of low utility, owing to the numerous determinants of costs (e.g. density, level of service) and their high sensitivity to local contexts. To circumvent this, this paper compares the cost ratios between different sanitation systems analysed in a same study. It concludes that conventional sewer systems are in most cases the most expensive sanitation options, followed, in order of cost, by sanitation systems comprising septic tanks, ventilated improved pit latrines (VIP), urine diversion dry toilets and pour-flush pit latrines. The cost of simplified sewer systems is found to be lower than both conventional sewer systems and septic tank-based systems, but lack of data prevented further comparisons with other types of sanitation solutions.

Using a two-round Delphi study, 15 faecal sludge emptiers from 11 cities in Sub-Saharan Africa have expressed views on the regulation of faecal sludge emptying services. Their responses identify the regulatory mechanisms in place where they operate, their opinions of these mechanisms, and prioritisation of those considered most useful to enable safe emptying services for all urban residents. All respondents (100%) support regulation, with 80% finding the regulation they encounter useful. However, all also state that regulatory mechanisms should extend beyond only rules and sanctions, to incorporate support, incentives and pro-poor mechanisms. This study is the first to provide a first-hand account of Sub-Saharan African private emptiers' willingness to accept clear regulation. In that regard, regulation should be flexible and adapted to the context in order to facilitate fair competition, safe and satisfactory service for customers and workers alike, and to alleviate the public and environmental health risks.

Poor management of fecal sludge (FSM) presents significant risks to public health and the environment. This study employed qualitative and quantitative data collection methods, along with the Shit Flow Diagram (SFD) data analyzing tool to investigate FSM patterns in Kombolcha town, Ethiopia. The findings indicate that 75.7% of housing unites in the town are shared toilets, with multiple households sharing a single facility. The primary toilet technologies used include cistern flush toilets (2.1%), pour/manual flush toilets (19.8%), ventilated improved pit latrines (11.1%), pit latrines with slabs (56.4%), and pit latrines without slabs (10.6%). However, 98.5% of these toilet types had either unlined or only partially lined containments. Furthermore, only 37% of households practice safe pit or sludge tank emptying. As a result, only 17% of fecal sludge goes through the sanitation value chain and is effectively treated, while 39% remains onsite and unemptied, and the remaining 44% is disposed of in a manner that poses risks to the environment and public health. The study highlights the significant public health and environmental risks associated with the high reliance on shared toilets, the prevalence of inadequately lined toilet types, and the low adoption of proper fecal sludge management practices. Addressing these challenges requires the implementation of sanitation bylaws and building code regulations that prioritize hygienic standards and promote improved toilet technologies.

Introduction: Exploring sanitation at a city scale is crucial due to approaches such as Citywide Inclusive Sanitation (CWIS). Sanitation impacts individuals, households and the whole city, as recognised by CWIS. The Shit Flow Diagram Graphic (SFDG) is the primary tool for citywide situation analysis. However, current SFDGs assume that individuals use only home toilets, overlooking the complexity of toilet usage, including public and workplace facilities. Our understanding of citywide sanitation flows is incomplete if analyses ignore the other toilets that people use. This study explored the impact of one type of institutional sanitation, school sanitation, on citywide sanitation flows.

The challenge of achieving safely managed sanitation in low-income settlements in the context of rapid urban expansion in Nairobi is significant. National and county government plans for sanitation focus primarily on extending large-scale sewer systems, but in recent years, there has been increasing activity on non-sewered sanitation, particularly container-based sanitation (CBS) to potentially extend safely managed sanitation. Market-based CBS providers received extensive investment and promised to rapidly scale service delivery. Yet, progress has faltered, and scaling up is proving to be problematic. We apply a service characteristics analysis to examine the case of Sanergy, a CBS provider. Data are drawn from documents and stakeholder interviews. We demonstrate that misaligned incentives between stakeholders explain why extensive scaling up has (so far) failed to materialise. In particular, the creation of a self-sustaining faecal waste circular economy has proved to be elusive and highlights the need for the state to engage actively in sanitation provision as a public good.

We evaluated the operational, financial, and management challenges within China’s Toilet Revolution by surveying 656 rural households across 10 provinces. The results revealed that the majority of households which renovated their toilets under the Toilet Revolution perceived positive impacts of this on their quality of life and living conditions. Households that had undertaken toilet renovations viewed the program more favorably than households which had not undertaken renovation, and were more willing to engage with the program. Despite the perceived benefits, households were generally hesitant to personally invest in toilet renovation. We uncovered a gap in strategic sanitation planning for post-construction operation and maintenance of toilets, reflecting a “build first, manage later” approach in the Toilet Revolution. We also identified a widespread lack of formal models for management of toilets and toilet products, coupled with high reliance among households on government support and subsidies to fund renovation. To address operational inefficiencies and financial sustainability issues in the program, we propose a novel “Toilet Business” model that leverages a sanitation value chain approach. In this model, private sector engagement, cost management, and market revitalization are crucial components that must be implemented to ensure the program’s long-term success. Overall, our study provides valuable insights into the complexities of implementing large-scale sanitation programs such as the Toilet Revolution.

At the current rate of progress, there will probably still be 2.8 billion people world-wide without safely managed sanitation by 2030. To incentivise and increase implementation of sustainable faecal sludge management (FSM), especially in low and middle-income countries like Cambodia, human waste must be regarded as a resource. However, planning data, e.g. on the quantities, composition and fate of faecal sludge after leaving households, are inadequate and lack accuracy. The aim of this study was to provide baseline data for effective FSM planning by sanitation stakeholders in Phnom Penh. This was done by quantifying sludge volumes generated, transport logistics and resource recovery potential to incentivise sustainable management. Interviews were conducted with users and emptying and transportation contractors, together with collection of technical data about on-site sanitation systems. Geographical coordinates of household sampling locations and disposal sites were also mapped. The results revealed that Cheung Ek and Kob Srov wetlands are the main recipients of faecal sludge collected in Phnom Penh with the amount of 18,800 m 3 and 13,700 m 3 annually, respectively. The analysis showed that faecal sludge in Phnom Penh contains valuable resources such as nitrogen (6 tons), phosphorus (13 tons) and energy (148-165 GWh) annually, but in-depth investigations of appropriate treatment options for resource recovery are required. Detailed documentation of the location of potential recoverable resources from faecal sludge would assist decision-makers in developing action plans for sustainable FSM in Phnom Penh and similar cities.

This paper presents results of research that has developed a set of diagnostic and decision-support tools for assessing sanitation services city-wide. It highlights features of the tools and illustrates key results from their validation through application in five cities worldwide. Collective use of these tools reveals and explains the complexities of the enabling environment and political economy within which sanitation services are delivered. Results present not only the status quo of services but also reasons for them being so. The tools have proven effective in guiding the collection, analysis and discussion of evidence, as a precursor to detailed feasibility studies, necessary to ultimately plan appropriate city-wide sanitation interventions.

In the world-wide Millennium Development Goals initiative, Rwanda promised to halve by 2015 the number of people who lacked access to safe water and improved sanitation in 1990. Progress has been made in access to water, but the target figure will probably not be met. Targets for improved sanitation will be met on the original definition of ‘improved’, though probably not if shared provision is excluded. However, beyond the usual rural/urban divide, the article highlights how the numerical target conceals a serious problem in the capital city, where ‘informal settlements’ have grossly inadequate provision. We argue that the problems are not soluble at the individual level; a whole and unbreakable chain of provision is needed. Centralised provision is also not very feasible in Rwanda, so Government and/or development partners will probably have to work at the level of communities to set up sanitation chains and train communities in servicing them. Solving the problem is essential if the urban poor are to be offered a decent life and to solve the public health problem of contaminated water.