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Vulnerability and attack information must be collected to assess the severity of vulnerabilities and prioritize countermeasures against cyberattacks quickly and accurately. Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures is a dictionary that lists vulnerabilities and incidents, while Common Attack Pattern Enumeration and Classification is a dictionary of attack patterns. Direct identification of common attack pattern enumeration and classification from common vulnerabilities and exposures is difficult, as they are not always directly linked. Here, an approach to directly find common links between these dictionaries is proposed. Then, several patterns, which are combinations of similarity measures and popular algorithms such as term frequency–inverse document frequency, universal sentence encoder, and sentence BERT, are evaluated experimentally using the proposed approach. Specifically, two metrics, recall and mean reciprocal rank, are used to assess the traceability of the common attack pattern enumeration and classification identifiers associated with 61 identifiers for common vulnerabilities and exposures. The experiment confirms that the term frequency–inverse document frequency algorithm provides the best overall performance.

Murder is often regarded as both the ‘ultimate’ and a unique crime, and whereas courts are normally given discretion in sentencing offenders, for murder the sentence is mandatory – indeterminate imprisonment. Since the crime and the punishment come as a ‘package deal’ this book looks at both the legal nature of the offence and at the current operation of the mandatory life sentence. Not only does the book adopt a critical approach, by assessing the strengths and weaknesses of the status quo, it also draws upon comparative material from both common and civil law jurisdictions in an attempt to provide a comprehensive exploration of these issues. The need for public confidence in the criminal justice system is particularly acute in the way it deals with the most serious homicides. In this book the authors report findings from the first systematic exploration of public attitudes to sentencing murder in this or any other common law jurisdiction. The picture of public opinion emerging from this recent large-scale nationwide qualitative and quantitative survey, funded by the Nuffield Foundation, is likely to surprise many, and will be of interest to all jurisdictions where the mandatory life sentence for murder has been questioned.

This paper proposes a novel entitymetrics approach by exclusively focusing on citation sentences. Since citation sentences offer authors’ research interest, knowledge entities that appear in such sentences can be considered as key entities. To characterize such key entities, we focus on citation sentences that were extracted from full-text research articles collected from PubMed Central. We used “opioid” as our search query since it is an actively studied domain, which indicates that rigorous amounts of knowledge entities and entity pairs are available for examination. After which we construct two novel citation sentence-based networks, namely the Direct Citation Sentence (DCS) network and the Indirect Citation Sentence (ICS) network. The DCS network is built upon direct entity pairs that are captured within citation sentences. The ICS network, on the other hand, utilized indirect entity cooccurrences based on cited author information and section information. To do this, we propose a multi-anchor bipartite network that uses cited author information and section headings as a multi-anchor that is related to bio-entity nodes, namely the [author/section]-entity bipartite network. To demonstrate the usefulness of the DCS and ICS network, a conventional full-text network is formed for comparison analysis. In addition, during this process, MeSH tree structure is used to examine the bio-entity level characteristics. The results show that DCS and ICS network demonstrate distinct network characteristics and provide unobserved top-ranked bio-entity pairs when compared to traditional method. This indicates that our method can expand the base of entitymetrics and provide new insights for entity level bibliometrics analysis.

The goal of the present study was to investigate whether a relationship exists between statistical learning ability and sentence processing ability in adult readers and whether this relationship depends on the participant's exposure to print. Fifty participants read syntactically complex sentences while their eye movements were tracked and answered comprehension questions. The region of interest for the eye fixation analyses was the area where the complexity of the sentence became evident. Participants also completed a visual statistical learning (VSL) task and an author recognition test (ART). There were main effects of statistical learning ability and print exposure, as well as an interaction between the two on both first pass and total reading times. Reading times decreased with increasing VSL scores for participants with higher ART scores, whereas reading times increased with increasing VSL scores for participants with lower ART scores. In addition, participants with better statistical learning ability and greater print exposure had higher scores on the comprehension questions. These results demonstrate that efficient processing of complex syntactic structures depends on both good statistical learning skills and exposure to a large amount of print so that these skills have the opportunity to extract the relevant statistical relationships in the language. L'objectif de cette étude était d'examiner s'il existe une corrélation entre la capacité d'apprentissage statistique et la capacité de traitement des phrases chez les lecteurs adultes, et si cette corrélation est influencée par l'exposition des participants à la presse écrite. Cinquante participants ont été invités à lire des phrases syntaxiquement complexes pendant que leurs mouvements oculaires étaient enregistrés, puis à répondre à des questions de compréhension. Le point central des analyses de la fixation oculaire était le segment où la complexité de la phrase devenait évidente. De plus, les participants ont effectué une tâche d'apprentissage statistique visuel (VSL) et un test de reconnaissance d'auteur (ART). Les résultats ont révélé des effets significatifs de la capacité d'apprentissage statistique et de l'exposition à la presse écrite sur les temps de lecture initiaux et totaux, ainsi qu'un effet d'interaction entre les deux variables. Plus précisément, les temps de lecture ont diminué avec l'augmentation des scores VSL pour les individus avec des scores ART plus élevés, tandis que les temps de lecture ont augmenté avec la montée des scores VSL pour ceux avec des scores ART plus faibles. En outre, les participants qui ont fait preuve d'une plus grande capacité d'apprentissage statistique et d'une plus grande exposition à la presse écrite ont obtenu de meilleurs scores aux questions de compréhension. Ces résultats indiquent que le traitement efficace de structures syntaxiques complexes nécessite des compétences solides en apprentissage statistique et une exposition étendue à des documents imprimés, permettant à ces compétences d'extraire des relations statistiques pertinentes au sein de la langue. Public Significance Statement Adults differ in their ability to read and understand complex sentences. This study demonstrated that a skill underlying these differences is the ability to extract regularities in the relationships among elements in an input. Readers who have good statistical learning ability and who have a great deal of exposure to print are the most efficient readers of complex sentences.

We report a novel transposed-word effect in speeded grammaticality judgments made about five-word sequences. The critical ungrammatical test sequences were formed by transposing two adjacent words from either a grammatical base sequence (e.g., “The white cat was big” became “The white was cat big”) or an ungrammatical base sequence (e.g., “The white cat was slowly” became “The white was cat slowly”). These were intermixed with an equal number of correct sentences for the purpose of the grammaticality judgment task. In a laboratory experiment (N = 57) and an online experiment (N = 94), we found that ungrammatical decisions were harder to make when the ungrammatical sequence originated from a grammatically correct base sequence. This provides the first demonstration that the encoding of word order retains a certain amount of uncertainty. We further argue that the novel transposed-word effect reflects parallel processing of words during written sentence comprehension combined with top-down constraints from sentence-level structures.

Translating ideas into acceptable sentence is an essential writing production process. Limited sentence construction skills can hinder young writers from expressing ideas as intended or creating sentences that are comprehensible to their audiences. This may also limit other writing production processes, as young writers must devote considerable attention to this skill until it becomes more facile. This investigation replicated an earlier sentence combining study conducted in the USA by Saddler and Graham (Journal of Educational Psychology, 97:43–54, 2005). In the current study, 88 Grade 2 to 4 Turkish students who received sentence combining instruction that included peer-assisted learning were compared to 83 students in the same grades and school who continued to receive their regular classroom writing instruction. Students receiving sentence combining instruction had statistically higher scores on measures of sentence fluency, writing quality, and length of essays than students in the business-as-usual comparison. The study provided evidence that the peer-assisted learning model of sentence combining instruction tested here and in Saddler and Graham (Journal of Educational Psychology, 97:43–54, 2005) was effective. These findings also provided support for the importance of sentence construction skills, as teaching such skills resulted in more general improvements in writing, including an improvement of overall quality of text. Implications for practice, theory, and research are discussed.

Research in sentence processing has increasingly examined the role of individual differences in language comprehension. In work on native and nonnative sentence processing, examining individual differences can contribute crucial insight into theoretical debates about the extent to which nativelike processing is possible in a nonnative language. Despite this increased interest in individual differences, whether commonly used psycholinguistic tasks can reliably measure individual differences between participants has not been systematically examined. As a preliminary examination of this issue in nonnative processing, we report a self-paced reading experiment on garden-path sentences in native and nonnative comprehension. At the group level we replicated previously observed findings in native and nonnative speakers. However, while we found that our self-paced reading experiment was a reliable way of assessing individual differences in overall reading speed and comprehension accuracy, it did not consistently measure individual differences in the size of garden-path effects in our sample (N = 64 native and 64 nonnative participants, and 24 experimental items). These results suggest that before individual differences in sentence processing can be meaningfully assessed, the question of whether commonly used tasks can consistently measure individual differences requires systematic examination.

In this essay, I critically analyze Wittgenstein’s dispensation with “ = ” in a correct concept-script. I argue inter alia (a) that in the Tractatus the alleged pseudo-character of sentences containing “ = ” or = -sentences remains largely unexplained and propose how it could be explained; (b) that at least in some cases of replacing = -sentences with equivalent identity-sign free sentences the use of the notion of a translation seems inappropiate; (c) that in the Tractatus it remains unclear how identity of the object as that which is expressed by identity of the sign should be understood specifically; (d) that there are = -sentences which have no obvious equivalent in Wittgenstein’s novel notation; (e) that Wittgenstein’s adherence to (non-relational) identity, although he dispenses with “ = ”, is probably motivated by his desire to ensure that the expressive power of an identity-sign free concept-script of first-order is on a par with standard first-order logic containing “ = ”. In the concluding section, I critically discuss some claims in Lampert and Säbel ( The Review of Symbolic Logic, 14 , 1–21,  2021 ) and defend Wehmeier’s account of pseudo-sentences in the Tractatus (2012) against the objections they raise.

Recent studies have revealed the instability of the action–sentence compatibility effect (ACE). The current study was designed to demonstrate the hypothesis that the instability of the ACE may be attributed to the instability of focused information in a sentence. A pilot study indicated that the focused information of sentences was relatively stable in the sentence–picture verification task but exhibited significant interindividual variability in the action–sentence compatibility paradigm in previous studies. Experiments 1 and 2 examined the effect of sentence focus on the shape match effect and the ACE by manipulating the focused information of sentences using the focus marker word “是” (is). Experiment 1 found that the shape match effect occurred in the original sentence, while it disappeared when the word “是” (is) was used to make an object noun no longer the focus of a sentence. Experiment 2 failed to observe the ACE regardless of whether the sentence focus was on the action information. Experiment 3 modified the focus manipulation to observe its impact on the ACE using different fonts and underlines to highlight the focused information. The results indicated that the ACE only occurred when the action information was the sentence focus. These findings suggest that sentence focus influences mental simulation, and the instability of the ACE is likely to be associated with the instability of sentence focus in previous studies. This outcome highlights the crucial role of identifying specific information as the critical element expressed in the current linguistic context for successful simulation.