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Accelerated urban and industrial expansion has intensified anthropogenic activities, increasing the emission and accumulation of hazardous substances in air, water, and soil. This study assessed health risks from heavy metals in indoor settled dust collected from Myodo-dong, Yeosu, Republic of Korea, by estimating exposure via inhalation, dermal contact, and ingestion, deriving protective exposure limits, and identifying emission sources using multivariate analysis. Indoor settled dust samples from 20 of 50 households showed elevated heavy metal concentrations, with zinc (Zn) having the highest mean level (4,912.01 µg/g). Ingestion was the dominant exposure route. Non-carcinogenic risks were within acceptable limits, while carcinogenic risks surpassed 1.0 × 10 − 6 for cadmium (Cd) and nickel (Ni). Cd risk was mainly ingestion-driven, whereas Ni posed the greatest concern through ingestion and dermal exposure. Lead (Pb) showed consistently low risk. Source identifications were analyzed using Pearson correlation, principal component analysis (PCA), and hierarchical cluster analysis (HCA), which grouped metals into three clusters, suggesting shared industrial origins. Positive matrix factorization (PMF) resolved five sources, four of which matched industrial sectors in pollutant release and transfer register (PRTR) data, including battery manufacturing, plastics, non-ferrous metal processing, and ceramics. Source 1, dominated by Cd, was not identified due to inventory gaps, but fenceline regression showed a strong correlation (R 2  = 0.983, p  < 0.01) between Cd in ambient air and indoor settled dust, implicating emissions from a nearby steel facility.

The occurrence of halogenated organic pollutants in indoor dust can be high due to the presence of textile, electronic devices, furniture, and building materials treated with these chemicals. In this explorative study, we focused on emerging organic pollutants, such as novel brominated flame retardants (nBFRs) and some perfluoroalkyl substances, together with legacy polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and polybrominated diphenyl ethers (BDEs) in settled dust collected in houses and workplaces such as one office and two electrotechnical and mechanical workshops. The total contribution of the investigated pollutants was lower in house and in office dusts except for few nBFRs (such as bis (2-ethylhexyl)-3,4,5,6-tetrabromo-phthalate at a concentration of 464.5 ng/g in a house and hexachlorocyclopentadienyldibromocyclooctane at 40.4 ng/g in the office), whereas in electrotechnical and mechanical workshops a high incidence of PCBs, BDEs, and nBFRs occurred (for example, BDE 209 at a concentration of 2368.0 ng/g and tetrabromobisphenol A at 32,320.1 ng/g in electrotechnical and mechanical workshops). Estimated daily intakes were also calculated, showing that domestic and occupational environments can lead to a similar contribution in terms of human exposure. The higher exposure contribution was associated to nBFRs, whose EDIs were in the range of 3968.2–555,694.2 pg/kg bw/day. To provide a complete view about the indoor contamination, in this investigation, we also included polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and their oxygenated and nitrated derivatives. Definitely, dust collection represents a simple, fast, and cost-effective sampling and dust contamination level can be a useful indicator of environment healthiness. Besides, the presented method can be a smart tool to provide a time and money saving technique to characterize 99 pollutants thanks to a single sample treatment.

This study reports concentrations of trace metals and the associated health risks in settled dust of different microenvironments of a university in Northeast India. Settled dust samples were collected from the most accessible indoor locations by the students of Tezpur University, a rural-residential university of mid Brahmaputra Valley of Assam. Collected samples were digested in an aqua regia–assisted microwave digestion system and analyzed for iron (Fe), nickel (Ni), zinc (Zn), cadmium (Cd), and lead (Pb) using atomic absorption spectroscopy (AAS). The highest concentration was obtained for Fe with a mean value of 1353.51 ± 123 mg/kg. Cadmium showed the lowest concentration with a mean value of 0.75 ± 0.57 mg/kg. Cadmium was the highly enriched element followed by Pb, Zn, and Ni. The metals mostly fall in the “extremely high enrichment” category. The study revealed that infiltrated soil or street dust, eroding wall paints, and automotive sources were the main contributing sources of the metals. The calculated Hazard Index (HI) value, 0.39, was lower than the acceptable HI value of 1 indicating no significant non-cancer risk to the students from exposure to these heavy metals at present. The study also found no carcinogenic risk on exposure to the metals present in the indoor dust samples.

Tehran, the capital city of Iran, has been facing air pollution for several decades due to rapid urbanization, population growth, improper vehicle use, and the low quality of fuels. In this study, 31 indoor dust samples were collected passively from residential and commercial buildings located in the central and densely populated districts of the city. These samples were analyzed after preparation to measure the concentration of elements (As, Be, Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Fe, Hg, Mn, Mo, Ni, Pb, Se, Sr, V, Zn). Statistical data analyses were employed to compare their relationship across various uses, variations, and for source identification. Geochemical indices of contamination factor (CF) and pollution load index (PLI) were utilized to evaluate the degree of contamination. The mean concentrations of Zn, Cu, and Pb (938, 206, and 176 µg g −1 , respectively) are 6, 5, and 3 times higher than their mean values in worldwide urban soils. Additionally, Cd, Mo, and Ni showed concentrations about 1.5 times higher, while As, Co, Cr, Mn, and Sr fell within the range of reference soils. Be, V, and Sb displayed remarkably lower mean values. Building use did not significantly influence element levels in indoor deposited dust except for Pb and Zn. A comparison of indoor concentrations with previously published data for outdoor dusts revealed higher enrichments of Mo, Cu, Pb, and Ni, while As, Cd, and Zn showed lower enrichments in street dust samples. The order of CF values indicated Hg > Zn > Cd > Pb > Cu > As > Ni > Cr > Co > V. For Hg, Zn, Pb, Cd, and Cu, all or almost all samples exhibited very high contamination. PLI values were consistently higher than 1, indicating contamination in all samples. Multivariate statistical analysis and Tehran’s specific geological location suggested that mafic-intermediate volcanic rocks are primary sources for Cr, Cu, Fe, and Ni (PC1). As, Pb, and V (PC2) were attributed to fossil fuel combustion in vehicles and residential buildings. Pb is a legacy metal remaining from the use of leaded gasoline, which was phased out in the 1990s. Zn (PC3) is derived from vehicle tires.

In the last decade, a great deal of research has focused on the determination of potential toxic elements by total concentration and identification the microorganisms in dust. However, determining bio-relevant (e.g., inhalable) forms of elements instead of total contents in acids is necessary for human health. Moreover, examination of the behavior of microorganism under these bio-relevant conditions and revealing the interaction between elements and pathogens is vital and necessary for deeper understanding. However, previous studies have ignored these topics. Therefore, the present study aimed to (i) investigate elements in household dusts extracted in simulated lung fluids, (ii) examine the total concentration of culturable bacteria and their biochemical responses with exposure to bio-fractions of household dusts, and (iii) assess their relations and risks using the model approaches by inhalation. Here, settled dusts were collected in 25 houses, and extracted in four simulated body fluids to determine bio-fractions of elements. Moreover, total count of potentially pathogenic and heterotrophic bacteria, and four clinically important culturable pathogens were incubated in the presence of household-dusts extracted in simulated body fluids. The activity, biofilm, biochemical and oxidative responses of pathogens were measured following household-dust exposures. Afterward, the relationship between elements and pathogen responses were evaluated, and model and derived approaches were used for risk assessments of elements and pathogens. The higher daily intake of elements obtained in artificial lysosomal fluid fraction of household dust mimicking the inflammatory condition compared to other body fluids. Moreover, bacterial responses were mainly influenced from bio-fractions of household dusts and their elemental contents.

Industrial coastal basins that host heavy industry can concentrate metal-bearing dust in school environments. We performed a screening multi-matrix assessment across six schools in Quintero–Puchuncaví (central Chile). We measured As, Cd, Cr, Cu, Ni, Pb, and Mn in surface soils (winter 2023; E1–E4 only), indoor settled dust, and settleable particulate matter (SPM) collected in winter (July 2023) and summer (November 2023). Concentrations were determined by ICP-OES/ICP-MS and interpreted with enrichment factors and the geoaccumulation index. A U.S. EPA screening framework was used to estimate non-carcinogenic hazard (HQ) and incremental lifetime cancer risk (ILCR) for ingestion, inhalation, and dermal contact, as well as cumulative indices for non-carcinogenic (HI) and carcinogenic risk (Risk). SPM carried the strongest anthropogenic signal (EF up to 9900 for Cd, 408 for Cu, and 143 for Pb) and the highest summer loads (Cu > 5000 mg kg−1; Ni > 1000 mg kg−1). Cu dominated non-carcinogenic hazard (HQ up to 137), whereas ILCR was driven by Ni, As, and Cr, exceeding 10−4 and reaching 10−3 at inland/valley schools in summer. Indoor dust showed intermediate burdens, indicating indoor accumulation of outdoor-derived metals, while the winter soil survey provides a baseline indication of outdoor metal reservoirs at the sampled schools. Despite the limited sample size, the results provide screening-level evidence to inform emission control and dust mitigation in school microenvironments.

It is controversial how useful bioassays are for identifying the in vivo toxicity of hazardous environmental exposures. In this study, fruiting bodies of forest mushrooms (n = 46), indoor mold colonies (n = 412), fungal secondary metabolites (n = 18), xenobiotic chemicals such as biocides and detergents (n = 6), and methanol extracts of indoor dusts from urban buildings (n = 26) were screened with two different bioactivity assays: boar sperm motility inhibition (BSMI) and inhibition of cell proliferation (ICP) tests. For the forest mushrooms, the toxicity testing result was positive for 100% of poisonous-classified species, 69% of non-edible-classified species, and 18% of edible-classified species. Colonies of 21 isolates of Ascomycota mold fungal species previously isolated from water-damaged buildings proved to be toxic in the tests. Out of the fungal metabolites and xenobiotic chemicals, 94% and 100% were toxic, respectively. Out of the indoor dusts from moldy-classified houses (n = 12) and from dry, mold-free houses (n = 14), 50% and 57% were toxic, respectively. The bioassay tests, however, could not differentiate the samples from indoor dusts of moldy-classified buildings from those from the mold-free buildings. Xenobiotic chemicals and indoor dusts were more toxic in the BSMI assay than in the ICP assay, whereas the opposite results were obtained with the Ascomycota mold colonies and fungal secondary metabolites. The tests recognized unknown methanol-soluble thermoresistant substances in indoor settled dusts. Toxic indoor dusts may indicate a harmful exposure, regardless of whether the toxicity is due to xenobiotic chemicals or microbial metabolites.

Standard Reference Material® (SRM®) 2585 can be considered as a model sample of settled indoor dust. At least 168 adsorbed chemicals were identified and quantified, generating a complex and potentially toxic mixture. Inhalable fractions PM10 and PM2.5 were isolated and compared to SRM® 2585 for their intrinsic properties and their respiratory toxicity using pertinent normal human bronchoepithelial (NHBE) cells. The intrinsic oxidative potential (OP) of SRM® 2585 and its subfractions was measured in acellular conditions, together with ROS generation and endotoxin content. For SRM® 2585 and PM10, cellular responses were evaluated on NHBE cells after 72 h exposure (1.1 to 110 µg/mL). The presence of endotoxins associated with an intrinsic prooxidant potential did not lead to the induction of an inflammatory response. Interestingly, cytokine production was decreased, strongly for IL-1β and to a lesser extent for IL-6. Only PM10 induced an acute toxicity. In parallel, mutagenicity was evaluated from organic extracts. Mutagenic profiles indicated the concomitant presence of nitro-PAHs in addition to the previously reported PAHs. This could be of concern for long-term health effects in a context of chronic exposure.

In order to determine human exposure to the indoor toxicant, selection of dust fraction and understanding dust particle size distribution in settled indoor dust are very important. This study examined the influence of dust particle size on the concentration of polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) congeners, assessed the distribution of dust particle size and characterized the main indoor emission sources of PBDEs. Accordingly, the concentrations of PBDE congeners determined in different indoor dust fractions were found to be relatively higher in the order of dust particle size: 45–106 μm > (<45 μm) > 106–150 μm. The finding shows arbitrary selection of dust fractions for exposure determination may result in wrong conclusions. Statistically significant moderate correlation between the concentration of Σ₉PBDEs and organic matter content calculated with respect to the total dust mass was also observed (r = 0.55, p = 0.001). On average, of total dust particle size <250 μm, 93.4 % (m/m%) of dust fractions was associated with less than 150 μm. Furthermore, of skin adherent dust fractions considered (<150 μm), 86 % (v/v%) is in the range of particle size 9.25–104.7 μm. Electronic materials treated with PBDEs were found the main emission sources of PBDE congeners in indoor environment. Based on concentrations of PBDEs determined and mass of indoor dust observed, 150 μm metallic sieve is adequate for human exposure risk assessment. However, research in this area is very limited and more research is required to generalize the fact.

Contaminants in settled indoor dust are potentially health hazardous to human. Thus, identification and quantification of toxic chemicals in settled indoor dust is of great concern. In this study, the levels of major anions ( ), trace metals (Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu, Zn, Cd, As and Pb) and polybromodiphenyl ethers (PBDEs) in settled office and home dust were determined and correlations between the contaminants investigated. Depending on the available materials in both microenvironments, the most possible sources were identified. The results showed that the settled office dusts ( n  = 6 pooled samples from 85 offices) were more contaminated than home dusts ( n  = 8 homes). For anions, and Cl – accounted for 87 and 97 % of the total office and home dust contaminants, respectively. For trace metals, Fe, Cu, Zn and Mn, accounted for 98 % of the contaminants in both office and home dust samples. Fe exhibited the highest percentage of 76.7 and 87.3 % in office and home dust samples, respectively. For PBDEs, the mean concentrations detected in office and home dust ranged between 5.8–86.3 and 1.5–20.6 ng g −1 , respectively. The log-transformed correlation between the total concentrations of trace metals and major anions detected in offices and homes was positive for offices and negative for homes with a statistically significant values ( r  = 0.73, p  < 0.01; r  = −0.22, p  < 0.01, respectively). The daily exposure rates determined for the most hazardous such as As, Cd, Pb and PBDEs congeners, relative to the individual concentrations reported in the literature in settled indoor dust, were found very lower. Therefore, maybe it is possible to expect less potential health risk. Investigation of formation of coordination compounds between trace metals and PBDEs congeners is possible; however, this requires further study.