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α-Solanine and α-chaconine, steroidal glycoalkaloids (SGAs) found in potato (Solanum tuberosum), are among the best-known secondary metabolites in food crops. At low concentrations in potato tubers, SGAs are distasteful; however, at high concentrations, SGAs are harmful to humans and animals. Here, we show that POTATO GLYCOALKALOID BIOSYNTHESIS1 (PGA1) and PGA2, two genes that encode cytochrome P450 monooxygenases (CYP72A208 and CYP72A188), are involved in the SGA biosynthetic pathway, respectively. The knockdown plants of either PGA1 or PGA2 contained very little SGA, yet vegetative growth and tuber production were not affected. Analyzing metabolites that accumulated in the plants and produced by in vitro enzyme assays revealed that PGA1 and PGA2 catalyzed the 26- and 22-hydroxylation steps, respectively, in the SGA biosynthetic pathway. The PGA-knockdown plants had two unique phenotypic characteristics: The plants were sterile and tubers of these knockdown plants did not sprout during storage. Functional analyses of PGA1 and PGA2 have provided clues for controlling both potato glycoalkaloid biosynthesis and tuber sprouting, two traits that can significantly impact potato breeding and the industry.

Solanine has been shown to inhibit cancer by regulating the expression of apoptosis ( Bax , Bcl-2 ) and metastasis ( CDH-1 , MMP2 ) genes in various cancer cell types. We synthesized optimized niosome NPs (NPs) with high solubility and capacity for solanine loading. In this study, the cytotoxic, cell cycle inhibitory and apoptotic effects of solanine-loaded niosome NPs (SN-NPs) on MCF-7 were investigated. Thin-layer hydration was used to generate SN-NPs and their features were validated. The pH-dependent solanine release pattern was also examined. Synthesized SN-NPs were evaluated for cytotoxicity against MCF-7 and MCF-10 cell lines using MTT. Primary and secondary apoptosis, necrosis, and cell cycle arrest were measured using flowcytometry. Lastly, q-PCR was used to assess the expression of genes. The NPs had an average size between 50 and 70 nm, with a polydispersity index (PDI) of 0.452. Solanine was effectively incorporated into noisome NPs, as shown by the high encapsulation efficiency of 82.3%±0.24%. After a quick burst at pH 7 and 5, SN-NPs released slowly and sustainedly. The IC 50 of solanine-loaded niosomes against MCF-7 cells decreased from 40 mg/100 mL to 10 mg/100 mL (48 h) and 5 mg/100 mL (72 h). After 72 h, SN-NPs caused late apoptosis in 30% of MCF-7 cells and necrosis in 5.06% ( p  < 0.01). SN-NPs caused 81% of cells to arrest in the G0/G1 phase, with only 12% progressing to G2/M ( p  < 0.01). Solanine-loaded NPs significantly increased Bax and CDH-1 gene expression in malignant cells compared to free niosomes and free solanine ( p  < 0.0001). Bcl-2 and MMP2 expression significantly decreased in this group compared to free niosomes and free solanine ( p  < 0.001). Solanine-containing niosomes showed significant anticancer effects on MCF-7 breast cancer cells, which were supported by apoptosis, cell cycle arrest and regulation of gene expression. The regulated release and precise delivery of solanine using SN-NPs show considerable translational potential. This improved nanocarrier technology may increase the bioavailability and efficacy of solanine, potentially leading to improved clinical outcomes in breast cancer therapy.

Solanum nigrum L. (Longkui) is one the most widely used anticancer herbs in traditional Chinese medicine. α-Solanine is an important ingredient of S. nigrum L. and has demonstrated anticancer properties in various types of cancer. However, the effects of α-solanine on colorectal cancer remain elusive. The aim of the present study was to assess the effects of α-solanine on human colorectal cancer cells. The results demonstrated that α-solanine inhibited the proliferation of RKO cells in a dose- and time-dependent manner. In addition, α-solanine arrested the cell cycle at the G0/G1 phase and suppressed the expression levels of cyclin D1 and cyclin-dependent kinase 2 in RKO cells. α-Solanine induced apoptosis of RKO cells, as indicated by morphological changes and positive Annexin-FITC/propidium iodide staining. Additionally, α-solanine activated caspase-3, −8 and −9 in RKO cells, which contributed to α-solanine-induced apoptosis. α-Solanine also increased the generation of reactive oxygen species, which contributed to caspase activation and induction of apoptosis. α-Solanine inhibited the migration, invasion and adhesion of RKO cells, as well as the expression levels and activity of matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)-2 and MMP-9. In addition, α-solanine inhibited cell proliferation, activated caspase-3, −8 and −9, induced apoptosis, and inhibited the migration and invasion of HCT-116 cells. Furthermore, α-solanine inhibited tumor growth and induced apoptosis in vivo. These findings demonstrated that α-solanine effectively suppressed the growth and metastatic potential of human colorectal cancer.

α‐Solanine has been shown to exhibit anti‐inflammatory and anti‐tumour properties; however, its efficacy in treating osteoarthritis (OA) remains ambiguous. The study aimed to evaluate the therapeutic effects of α‐solanine on OA development in a mouse OA model. The OA mice were subjected to varying concentrations of α‐solanine, and various assessments were implemented to assess OA progression. We found that α‐solanine significantly reduced osteophyte formation, subchondral sclerosis and OARSI score. And it decreased proteoglycan loss and calcification in articular cartilage. Specifically, α‐solanine inhibited extracellular matrix degradation by downregulating collagen 10, matrix metalloproteinase 3 and 13, and upregulating collagen 2. Importantly, α‐solanine reversed chondrocyte pyroptosis phenotype in articular cartilage of OA mice by inhibiting the elevated expressions of Caspase‐1, Gsdmd and IL‐1β, while also mitigating aberrant angiogenesis and sensory innervation in subchondral bone. Mechanistically, α‐solanine notably hindered the early stages of OA progression by reducing I‐κB phosphorylation and nuclear translocation of p65, thereby inactivating NF‐κB signalling. Our findings demonstrate the capability of α‐solanine to disrupt chondrocyte pyroptosis and sensory innervation, thereby improving osteoarthritic pathological progress by inhibiting NF‐κB signalling. These results suggest that α‐solanine could serve as a promising therapeutic agent for OA treatment.

The response of plants to microbial pathogens is based on the production of secondary metabolites. The complexity of plant–pathogen interactions makes their understanding a challenging task for metabolomic studies requiring powerful analytical approaches. In this paper, the ability of ambient mass spectrometry to provide a snapshot of plant metabolic response to pathogen invasion was tested. The fluctuations of glycoalkaloids present in sprouted potatoes infected by the phytopathogen Pythium ultimum were monitored by imprint imaging desorption electrospray ionization mass spectrometry (DESI-MS). After 8 d from the inoculation, a decrease of the relative abundance of potato glycoalkaloids α-solanine ( m/z 706) and α-chaconine ( m/z 722) was observed, whereas the relative intensity of solanidine ( m/z 398), solasodenone ( m/z 412), solanaviol ( m/z 430), solasodiene ( m/z 396), solaspiralidine ( m/z 428), γ-solanine/γ-chaconine ( m/z 560) , β-solanine ( m/z 706), and β-chaconine ( m/z 722) increased. The progression of the disease, expressed by the development of brown necrotic lesions on the potato, led to the further decrease of all the glycoalkaloid metabolites. Therefore, the applicability of imprint imaging DESI-MS in studying the plant metabolic changes in a simple pathosystem was demonstrated with minimal sample preparation. Graphical Abstract ᅟ

The present study has found that dried potato samples yielded significantly higher levels of steroidal alkaloids such as α-solanine and α-chaconine than the corresponding fresh samples, as determined by the UPLC-MS/MS technique. Among the drying techniques used, air drying had the highest effect on steroidal alkaloid contents, followed by freeze drying and vacuum oven drying. There was no significant difference between the freeze dried and vacuum oven dried samples in their α-chaconine contents. However, freeze dried potato shoots and berries had significantly higher α-solanine contents (825 µg/g dry weight (DW) in shoots and 2453 µg/g DW in berries) than the vacuum oven dried ones (325 µg/g dry weight (DW) in shoots and 2080 µg/g DW in berries). The kinetics of steroidal alkaloid contents of potato shoots during air drying were monitored over a period of 21 days. Both α-solanine and α-chaconine content increased to their maximum values, 875 µg/g DW and 3385 µg/g DW, respectively, after 7 days of drying. The steroidal alkaloid contents of the shoots decreased significantly at day 9, and then remained unchanged until day 21. In line with the potato shoots, air dried potato tuber peels also had higher steroidal alkaloid content than the freeze dried and vacuum oven dried samples. However, a significant decrease of steroidal alkaloid content was observed in air dried potato berries, possibly due to degradation during slicing of the whole berries prior to air drying. Remarkable variation in steroidal alkaloid contents among different tissue types of potato plants was observed with the potato flowers having the highest content.

Potato glycoalkaloids (PGAs), α-solanine and α-chaconine, are secondary metabolites related to plant defense. Highly concentrated in the upper part of potato plants, they exhibit antimicrobial properties. Seeking more sustainable crop protection strategies, this study investigates the effects of PGAs on plant pathogens and beneficial organisms. These organisms were exposed to different PGA concentrations (0.98 to 250 ppm), with evaluations focusing on developmental and survival metrics. Key findings highlight α-chaconine as the more potent compound, causing significantly stronger adverse effects across tested organisms. E.g., α-chaconine (≤ 25 ppm) reduced nematode mobility by 43%, host attraction by > 45%, and infection rates by 63%. At 250 ppm, α-solanine moderately reduced mycelial growth, while α-chaconine reduced it by 78%. Crucially, beneficial organisms experienced minimal growth impairment (≤ 19%) even at the highest concentration (250 ppm). Arabidopsis thaliana seedling development was impaired by both PGAs, and seedlings exposed to these compounds exhibited a strong, transient oxidative burst, indicating direct stress activation. Pretreatment with PGAs did not induce priming effects but even decreased subsequent elicitor-induced responses. The selective toxicity against pathogens, coupled with minimal impact on beneficial species, positions PGAs, particularly α-chaconine, as promising starting points for sustainable crop protection strategies.

Background Steroidal glycoalkaloids (SGAs), derived from cholesterol, act as natural defenses against pathogens and pests. In cultivated potatoes, α-solanine and α-chaconine are the primary SGAs, distributed throughout the plant, with their biosynthesis mechanisms differing across various tissues. The variation in SGAs content between the cortex and perimedullary zone reflects tissue-specific metabolic regulation in potato tuber. Higher SGAs levels in the cortex may enhance defense against external threats. This spatial distribution provides a theoretical basis for breeding strategies aimed at balancing resistance and food quality by regulating SGAs accumulation in specific tissues of potato tubers. Excessive levels of SGAs in potato tubers can compromise both their quality and edibility. Additionally, SGAs exhibit pharmacological properties, including anti-protozoal, antibacterial, antiviral, anti-tumor, and anti-inflammatory effects. Results This study conducted genome-wide association study (GWAS) on SGAs content in the cortex and perimedullary zone of 117 diverse potato germplasm accessions, utilizing 22,983,689 high-quality SNPs. Candidate genes were subjected to analyses of stability, pleiotropy, GO and KEGG enrichment, and haplotype profiling. Twelve candidate genes associated with SGAs biosynthesis in potato tubers were identified, encoding UDP-glycosyltransferase superfamily proteins ( Soltu.DM.11G005750 , Soltu.DM.11G005760 , Soltu.DM.11G005770 , Soltu.DM.11G005820 ), fatty acid hydroxylase superfamily proteins ( Soltu.DM.01G029600 , Soltu.DM.01G029610, Soltu.DM.01G029620 , Soltu.DM.01G029640 , Soltu.DM.01G029650 , Soltu.DM.10G008360 ), alkaline/neutral invertase ( Soltu.DM.11G006090 ), and pleiotropic drug resistance ( Soltu.DM.11G006080 ). Conclusions This study provides a theoretical basis for elucidating the genetic mechanisms underlying SGAs biosynthesis in potatoes and will facilitate the breeding of new potato varieties.

α-Solanine (α-Sol) shows promise for pancreatic cancer (PC) treatment by inhibiting PC cell proliferation, migration, and invasion. However, its clinical application is hindered by poor tumor targeting, significant toxicity, and undesirable pharmacokinetics. To address these issues, this study developed a nanoparticle delivery system (PBSO NPs) using bovine serum albumin as a carrier, with polyallylamine hydrochloride surface modification to enhance α-Sol delivery. PBSO NPs were characterized using transmission electron microscopy, dynamic light scattering, nanoparticle size analyzers, and Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy. Their in vitro drug release profile and cellular uptake capabilities were evaluated. Furthermore, in vitro experiments were conducted using mouse pancreatic cancer cells (Panc02) to investigate the effects of PBSO NPs on Panc02 cell viability, migration, invasion, and apoptosis. Additionally, a pancreatic cancer xenograft tumor model was established for in vivo experiments to explore the impact of PBSO NPs on tumor growth. This study successfully developed PBSO NPs with favorable morphology and physiological stability, capable of enhancing cellular uptake. In vitro experiments demonstrated that PBSO NPs significantly inhibited the viability, migration, and invasion of Panc02 cells while promoting apoptosis. Moreover, PBSO NPs enhanced the inhibitory effects of α-Sol on Panc02 cells. In vivo experiments further confirmed that PBSO NPs improved the therapeutic efficacy of α-Sol against PC while partially reducing its toxicity. Additionally, PBSO NPs exhibited good biocompatibility. PBSO NPs enhance the therapeutic efficacy of α-Sol against PC by inhibiting the viability, migration, and invasion of PC cells while promoting apoptosis, thereby suppressing the progression of PC. This provides a promising therapeutic strategy for pancreatic cancer treatment.

Background Potato leaves are an abundant by-product of potato production. Although they contain steroidal glycoalkaloids (SGAs) and other bioactive metabolites, the chemical composition of SGA-enriched leaf extracts and the impact of purification steps remains insufficiently described. Here, we aimed to profile and compare a crude SGA-enriched extract and a C18 solid-phase extraction (SPE)-purified fraction obtained from potato leaves. Results LC–MS/MS-based untargeted metabolomics annotated 1,761 metabolites across the two extracts, including terpenoids (6.94%), alkaloids (4.90%), and steroids (1.22%). The dominant SGAs were solanidine, α-chaconine, and α-solanine. After data filtering for statistical analysis, 1,760 metabolites were retained; 800 met the differential screening criteria (VIP > 1 and |log2FC| ≥ 1) in purified extract vs. crude extract, whereas 960 did not. The metabolites most affected by C18 purification were mainly organic acids and derivatives, benzene and substituted derivatives, amino acids and derivatives, and glycerophospholipids. In contrast, the major SGAs did not meet the differential screening criteria, suggesting that C18 SPE preserved the core SGA constituents. Conclusions C18 purification substantially changed a subset of polar co-extracted metabolites but largely maintained the major SGAs in potato leaf extracts. These results provide a metabolite catalog for SGA-enriched potato leaf extracts and a chemical basis for optimizing extraction and purification strategies. Further work should optimize SGA enrichment and evaluate bioactivity and safety to support potential agricultural applications.