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We investigated the effect of internal and external cooling on high‐intensity intermittent cycling performance and cognitive function in the heat. Twenty‐nine males completed a control trial (CON) and a cooling trial (ice slurry and ice collar; COOL) in the heat (33°C, 50% relative humidity) involving a 40 min intermittent cycling protocol (two sets of ten 2 min stages, each consisting of 5 s sprint, 105 s active recovery and 10 s rest). A battery of cognitive tests was completed pre‐ and postexercise, with physiological and perceptual responses recorded throughout. No differences in peak or mean power output were found between conditions (all p  > 0.05). Average trial rectal (COOL: 37.39°C ± 0.59°C; CON: 37.59°C ± 0.56°C, p  < 0.001) and neck (COOL: 28.87°C ± 4.87°C; CON: 32.82°C ± 1.43°C, P  < 0.001) temperatures were found to be lower in COOL. Participants reported feeling better and reported lower ratings of thermal sensation and improved comfort in COOL (all p  < 0.05). Response times on the Stroop task complex level were quicker over time in COOL (COOL: −48 ± 23 ms; CON: −11 ± 18 ms, p  = 0.002) and quicker overall on the number level of Sternberg during COOL (COOL: 434 ± 77 ms; CON: 437 ± 84 ms, p  = 0.046). However, over time, the improvement in response times on the number level of Sternberg was greater in CON (COOL: −6 ± 3 ms; CON: −26 ± 2 ms, p  = 0.015). Response times became quicker over time to a greater extent in CON on the visual search complex level (COOL: −15 ± 1 ms; CON: −119 ± 31 ms, p  = 0.009). The combined cooling intervention did not influence sprint performance and had only a minimal influence on some domains of cognitive function but did lead to improvements in physiological and perceptual responses. These findings provide information on a practical combined cooling method that can be implemented in elite sport. What is the central question of this study? The ability to repeatedly perform high‐intensity efforts interspersed with minimal recovery, coupled with optimal cognitive function, is imperative for successful team‐sport performance. However, both components face impairment when core temperatures reach 38.5°C, which can occur commonly when exercising in hot environments. What is the main finding and its importance? The combined cooling intervention was successful at lowering rectal and neck temperature and reducing heart rate. Additionally, the combined cooling intervention elicited lower ratings of thermal sensation, improved comfort and lower perceived exertion. Despite this, no differences were found in sprint performance.

This study investigated how the acceleration-speed profile (ASP) of the weaker and stronger side changes at different radii. Twenty male youth soccer players completed 30 m linear and curvilinear sprints (12.15, 11.15, 9.15, 7.15, and 6.15 m radius) in three training sessions. Sprint speed and acceleration over time and distance were recorded using a GNSS device. The maximum theoretical speed (S0), the acceleration (A0), slope of the ASP (ASslope), the area under the ASslope (ASParea), the acceleration at a sprint speed of 3 m/s (A3), and the curvilinear sprint deficit (ASPdeficit) of the individual sprints were analyzed. The effects of side, radius, and their interaction were evaluated with 2 × 5 ANOVA and the post hoc tests. A significant effect of radius and side was observed for all variables (F ≥ 3.50, p ≤ 0.037, η2 ≥ 0.15). The ASParea and S0 decreased at tighter radii. The A3 and A0 remained relatively unchanged, resulting in a steeper ASslope, and a larger ASPdeficit. At the same radius, the weaker side CS had a smaller ASParea, S0, A3, and a larger ASPdeficit. The ASP of the curvilinear sprint in youth soccer players is side-dependent at both ends (acceleration and top speed), while radii mainly affect late acceleration and top speed performance. These observations should be considered when adapting soccer players’ sprint training and monitoring external load based on acceleration.

Most studies that have shown the positive effects of caffeine supplementation on sports performance have been carried out on men. However, the differences between sexes are evident in terms of body size, body composition, and hormonal functioning, which might cause different outcomes on performance for the same dosage of caffeine intake in men vs. women. The main aim of this systematic review was to analyze and compare the effects of caffeine intake between men and women on sports performance to provide a source of knowledge to sports practitioners and coaches, especially for those working with women athletes, on the use of caffeine as an ergogenic aid. A structured search was carried out following the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Review and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines in the Web of Science, Cochrane Library, and Scopus databases until 28 July 2019. The search included studies in which the effects of caffeine supplementation on athletic performance were compared between sexes and to an identical placebo situation (dose, duration and timing). No filters were applied for participants’ physical fitness level or age. A total of 254 articles were obtained in the initial search. When applying the inclusion and exclusion criteria, the final sample was 10 articles. The systematic review concluded that four investigations (100% of the number of investigations on this topic) had not found differences between sexes in terms of caffeine supplementation on aerobic performance and 3/3 (100%) on the fatigue index. However, four out of seven articles (57.1%) showed that the ergogenicity of caffeine for anaerobic performance was higher in men than women. In particular, it seems that men are able to produce more power, greater total weight lifted and more speed with the same dose of caffeine than women. In summary, caffeine supplementation produced a similar ergogenic benefit for aerobic performance and the fatigue index in men and women athletes. Nevertheless, the effects of caffeine to produce more power, total weight lifted and to improve sprint performance with respect to a placebo was higher in men than women athletes despite the same dose of caffeine being administered. Thus, the ergogenic effect of acute caffeine intake on anaerobic performance might be higher in men than in women.

It is possible that dietary nitrate (NO 3 − ) supplementation may improve both physical and cognitive performance via its influence on blood flow and cellular energetics. Purpose To investigate the effects of dietary NO 3 − supplementation on exercise performance and cognitive function during a prolonged intermittent sprint test (IST) protocol, which was designed to reflect typical work patterns during team sports. Methods In a double-blind randomised crossover study, 16 male team-sport players received NO 3 − -rich (BR; 140 mL day −1 ; 12.8 mmol of NO 3 − ), and NO 3 − -depleted (PL; 140 mL day −1 ; 0.08 mmol NO 3 − ) beetroot juice for 7 days. On day 7 of supplementation, subjects completed the IST (two 40-min “halves” of repeated 2-min blocks consisting of a 6-s “all-out” sprint, 100-s active recovery and 20 s of rest), on a cycle ergometer during which cognitive tasks were simultaneously performed. Results Total work done during the sprints of the IST was greater in BR (123 ± 19 kJ) compared to PL (119 ± 17 kJ; P  < 0.05). Reaction time of response to the cognitive tasks in the second half of the IST was improved in BR compared to PL (BR first half: 820 ± 96 vs. second half: 817 ± 86 ms; PL first half: 824 ± 114 vs. second half: 847 ± 118 ms; P  < 0.05). There was no difference in response accuracy. Conclusions These findings suggest that dietary NO 3 − enhances repeated sprint performance and may attenuate the decline in cognitive function (and specifically reaction time) that may occur during prolonged intermittent exercise.

The purpose of this study was to investigate to what extent aerobic power (MAP), maximal anaerobic power (MANP), anaerobic capacity measured as time to exhaustion at 130% MAP (TTE), and maximal accumulated oxygen deficit (MAOD) correlated with 800 m double poling time trial performance (800TT) in a ski ergometer. A second aim was to investigate the relationship between TTE and MAOD, and to what extent TTE and MAOD would relate to anaerobic power reserve (APR). Eighteen cross-country skiers were tested for peak oxygen uptake (VO2peak) and oxygen cost of double poling to assess MAP. Peak power measurements during a 100 m TT were performed to assess MANP. TTE and an 800TT with continuous VO2 measurements were performed to assess time performance and MAOD. All tests were performed on a ski ergometer. Both MAP and MANP correlated strongly (r = − 0.936 and − 0.922, respectively, p < 0.01) with 800TT. Neither TTE nor MAOD correlated with 800TT. TTE correlated moderately with MAOD, both in mL kg−1 and in %VO2peak (r = 0.559, p < 0.05 and 0.621, p < 0.01, respectively). Both TTE and MAOD seemed to be a product of APR. These results suggest focusing on MAP and MANP, but not anaerobic capacity to explain time performance in an event with approximately 3 min duration.

Purpose Caffeine is widely considered an ergogenic aid to increase anaerobic performance although most of this evidence is supported by investigations with only male samples. To date, it is unknown if the ergogenic effect of caffeine on anaerobic performance is of similar magnitude in men and women athletes. The aim of this study was to determine the magnitude of the ergogenic effect of caffeine on the Wingate test in men and women. Methods In a double-blind, placebo-controlled, cross-over experimental trial, ten women athletes and ten men athletes performed a 15-s adapted version of the Wingate test after ingesting 3 mg of caffeine per kg of body mass or a placebo (cellulose). Results In comparison to the performance obtained in the 15-s Wingate test with a placebo, caffeine increased peak power in men (9.9 ± 0.8 vs. 10.1 ± 0.8 W/kg, p  < 0.01, d  = 0.26) and in women (8.8 ± 0.9 vs. 9.1 ± 0.8 W/kg, p  = 0.04, d  = 0.30). Caffeine was also effective to increase the mean power in men (8.9 ± 0.7 vs. 9.0 ± 0.7 W/kg, p  = 0.01, d  = 0.21) and women (8.1 ± 0.7 vs. 8.3 ± 0.7 W/kg, p  = 0.01, d  = 0.27). The ergogenic effect of caffeine on the 15-s Wingate peak power (2.3 ± 3.2% in men and 3.2 ± 2.8% in women; p  = 0.46) and mean power (2.0 ± 1.7% and 2.4 ± 2.3%, respectively; p  = 0.93) was of similar magnitude in both sexes. Conclusion Acute ingestion of 3 mg kg −1 of caffeine enhanced peak and mean cycling power during a 15-s adapted version of the Wingate test in men and women and the ergogenic effect was of similar magnitude in both sexes. This information suggests that both men and women athletes might obtain similar benefits from caffeine supplementation during anaerobic exercise.

Introduction: This study investigated heart rate variability (HRV) and perceived recovery status (PRS) in relation to sprint performance in competitive athletes involved in sprint events. A secondary aim was to explore potential gender-based differences in these relationships. Methods: Fifty-six sprint-trained athletes (21 males, 35 females; age 16–21) participated in a 5-day in-season microcycle. Daily morning HRV was measured using Polar H10 chest straps and the HRV4Training app, with the root mean square of successive differences (LnRMSSD) used as the primary HRV marker. Perceived recovery was assessed each morning using the PRS scale. On each day, athletes completed 20 m maximal sprint tests. Linear mixed-effects models were used to examine the relationships between LnRMSSD, PRS, gender, and sprint performance while accounting for repeated measurements within athletes. Results: Linear mixed-effects modeling revealed that LnRMSSD was a significant negative predictor of sprint time (β = −0.019, p = 0.003), indicating that higher parasympathetic activity was associated with faster sprint performance. PRS was also a significant negative predictor of sprint performance (β = −0.014, p = 0.008). Conclusions: Daily recovery markers were associated with sprint performance in competitive sprint athletes, with potential gender-specific patterns that should be interpreted cautiously. Both LnRMSSD and PRS were significantly associated with sprint performance, highlighting the relevance of combining physiological and subjective recovery markers in athlete monitoring.

This meta-analysis assesses the impact of plyometric training on lower limb strength, power, agility, and body composition in athletically trained adults to inform its athletic applications. A systematic search of randomised controlled trials (RCTs) was conducted using PubMed, EMBASE, Cochrane, Web of Science, and Scopus databases on the effects of plyometrics training on physical fitness in athletically trained adults. Searches were conducted up to May 2025 using the PICOS framework. Methodological quality was assessed using the Cochrane risk of bias tool (ROB-2), and statistical analyses were performed using Review Manager (RevMan 5.4.1). Publication bias was assessed through funnel plot asymmetry and Egger’s regression test. The certainty of evidence was assessed using the GRADE approach. 70 studies were incorporated in the analysis, involving 1703 conditioned adults, from the inception of the database up to May 2025. The results indicated that plyometric training significantly outperformed the control group in the following performance tests: 1RM squat (SMD = 0.53, 95% CI [0.23, 0.84], p  < 0.05), sprint performance (10 m: SMD = − 0.50, 95% CI [− 0.86, − 0.14], p  < 0.05; 20 m: SMD = − 0.53, 95% CI [− 0.90, − 0.17], p  < 0.05; 30 m: SMD = − 0.57, 95% CI [− 0.93, − 0.20], p  < 0.05), vertical jump tests (CMJ: SMD = 0.69, 95% CI [0.48, 0.89], p  < 0.05; SJ: SMD = 0.47, 95% CI [0.22, 0.71], p  < 0.05; CMJ-A: SMD = 0.83, 95% CI [0.50, 1.15], p  < 0.05), reactive strength index (SMD = 0.80, 95% CI [0.49, 1.10], p  < 0.05), standing long jump (SMD = 1.34, 95% CI [0.79, 1.90], p  < 0.05), Illinois test: (SMD = − 0.64, 95% CI [− 1.18, − 0.10], p  < 0.05), T-test: (SMD = − 0.41, 95% CI [− 0.76, − 0.07], p  < 0.05) and reduced body fat percentage (SMD = − 0.71, 95% CI [− 1.09, − 0.32], p  < 0.05). Plyometric training significantly improves lower-limb strength, jump height, sprint speed, agility, and body composition in athletically trained adults. These findings support its targeted application in explosive sports such as football, basketball, and sprinting to enhance key performance parameters.

Sprinting is often seen in a variety of sports. Focusing one’s attention externally before sprinting has been demonstrated to boost sprint performance. The present study aimed to systematically review previous findings on the impact of external focus (EF), in comparison to internal focus (IF), on sprint performance. A literature search was conducted in five electronic databases (APA PsycINFO, PubMed, Scopus, SPORTDiscus, and Web of Science). A random-effects model was used to pool Hedge’s g with 95% confidence intervals (CIs). The meta-analysis included six studies with a total of 10 effect sizes and 166 participants. In general, the EF condition outperformed the IF condition in sprint performance (g = 0.279, 95% CI [0.088, 0.470], p = 0.004). The subgroup analysis, which should be viewed with caution, suggested that the benefits associated with the EF strategy were significant in low-skill sprinters (g = 0.337, 95% CI [0.032, 0.642], p = 0.030) but not significant in high-skill sprinters (g = 0.246, 95% CI [−0.042, 0.533], p = 0.094), although no significant difference was seen between these subgroups (p = 0.670). The reported gain in sprint performance due to attentional focus has practical implications for coaches and athletes, as making tiny adjustments in verbal instructions can lead to significant behavioral effects of great importance in competitive sports.

The aim of this study was to test the morphometric features affecting 20-m sprint performance in children at the first level of primary education using machine learning (ML) algorithms. In this study, 130 male and 152 female volunteers aged between 6 and 11 years were included. After obtaining demographic information of the participants, skinfold thickness, diameter and circumference measurements, and 20-m sprint performance were determined. The study conducted three distinct experiments to determine the optimal ML technique for predicting outcomes. Initially, the entire feature space was utilized for training the ML models to establish a baseline performance. In the second experiment, only significant features identified through correlation analysis were used for training and testing the models, enhancing the focus on relevant predictors. Lastly, Principal Component Analysis (PCA) was employed to reduce the feature space, aiming to streamline model complexity while retaining data variance. These experiments collectively aimed to evaluate different feature selection and dimensionality reduction techniques, providing insights into the most effective strategies for optimizing predictive performance in the given context. The correlation-based selected features (Age, Height, waist circumference, hip circumference, leg length, thigh length, foot length) has produced a minimum Mean Squared Error (MSE) value of 0.012 for predicting the sprint performance in children. The effective utilization of correlation analysis in the selection of relevant features for our regression model suggests that the features selected exhibit robust linear associations with the target variable and can be relied upon as predictors.