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The performance of rubber composite relies on the compatibility between rubber and filler. This is specifically of concern when preparing composites with very different polarities of the rubber matrix and the filler. However, a suitable compatibilizer can mediate the interactions. In this study, composites of natural rubber (NR) with halloysite nanotubes (HNT) were prepared with maleated natural rubber (MNR) and modified palm stearin (MPS) as dual compatibilizers. The MPS dose ranged within 0.5–1.5 phr, while the MNR dose was fixed at 10 phr in all formulations. It was found that the mixed MNR/MPS significantly enhanced modulus, tensile strength, and tear strength of the composites. The improvements were mainly due to improved rubber-HNT interactions arising from hydrogen bonds formed in the presence of these two compatibilizers. This was clearly verified by observing the Payne effect. Apart from that, the MPS also acted as a plasticizer to provide improved dispersion of HNT. It was clearly demonstrated that MNR and MPS as dual compatibilizers improved rubber-HNT interactions and reduced filler-filler interactions, which then improved tensile and tear strengths, as well as dynamical properties. Therefore, the mix of MNR and MPS had a great potential to compatibilize non-polar rubber with HNT filler.

This work aimed to explore the composition, thermal characteristics, and morphological properties of binary blends composed of bambangan kernel fat stearin and palm stearin. Various attributes, including the fatty acid composition, triglyceride profile, solid fat content, and crystal microstructure, were assessed through gas chromatography, high-performance liquid chromatography, pulsed nuclear magnetic resonance, and polarization microscopy. Five binary mixtures were prepared using bambangan kernel fat stearin and palm stearin in varying ratios (g/100 g), with palm stearin content incrementally increasing by 5%. Among these blends, SS5, comprising 70% bambangan kernel fat stearin and 30% palm stearin, demonstrated properties on par with cocoa butter. It contained 21.73% palmitic, 38.92% stearic, and 31.12% oleic acids, along with 1,3-dipalmitate-2-oleate-glycerol, 1-palmitate-2-oleate-3-stearate-glycerol and 1,3-distearate-2-oleate-glycerol values of 10.35%, 10.95%, and 30.22%, respectively. When SS5 was blended with cocoa butter in proportions less than 40%, no tripalmitin was observed, and the thermal and morphological behaviour closely resembled that of cocoa butter. Therefore, SS5 (70:30, bambangan kernel fat stearin: palm stearin) presents a viable alternative due to its comparable properties and compatibility with cocoa butter.

The study aimed to develop a highly efficient, biodegradable polymer-coated urea to minimize nitrogen (N) losses and facilitate sustained release. The study included four treatments: T 1 : uncoated urea (UCU); T 2 : palm stearin-coated urea (PSCU) 10%; T 3 : pine oleoresin-coated urea (POCU) 6%; and T 4 : humic acid-coated urea (HACU) 15%. The bio polymer-based urea coatings were compared for their N content and their dissolution rate in water against UCU as a control. Results from high throughput instrumentation revealed that the coating materials had great compatibility with urea fertilizer. In a laboratory study of urea release in water over a 5-h interval, PSCU 10% (0.54–2.38 mol L −1 ) exhibited a sustained release of urea. This performance was superior to POCU 6% (0.59–2.50 mol L −1 ) and HACU 15% (0.71–2.69 mol L −1 ). In contrast, UCU released (1.61–2.47 mol L −1 ) almost all its urea within 2-h interval. Additionally, PSCU 10% had excellent synergy in surface morphology, interaction and crystal structure through scanning electron microscope (SEM), Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy analysis (FTIR) and X-ray diffraction (XRD), respectively. The PSCU 10% fertilizer could be a good competitor for other coated urea fertilizers. However, this fertilizer must be field validated to prove its effectiveness on crops before commercialization.

Using granular form application in the pisciponic system, this study investigates the effects of supplementation in the pisciponic system on plant growth performance. This study was conducted at the Aquaculture Experimental Station in Puchong, Selangor. The experiment was set up in a greenhouse with a plastic liner at the bottom. The coated fertilizers were immersed in 500 mL of distilled water in the beakers. The immersion times were analyzed for each 3, 6, 12, 18, 24, 30, 36, 42, 48, 54, 60, 66, and 72 hours. Insoluble solids and water were then filtered using filter paper and dried in the oven, followed by the drying process to obtain a constant weight before being put in the desiccators. During the release test, the distilled water was taken at every 48-hour interval, and the concentration of nutrients was determined from the atomic absorption spectrometer. The findings indicate that the weights of release fertilizers, specifically Zn and Fe, significantly decreased over time. At the lowest concentration, the coated zinc and iron weights decreased as time increased. Referring to the curve results, the Zn fertilizer started drastically decreasing its weight at hour 24, which decreased approximately to 0.002 for every subsequent hour. Meanwhile, Fe fertilizer decreased drastically at hour 66, where the weight dropped from 0.10467 to 0.039. However, the final weights for both fertilizers at hour 72 were about the same.

Low crystallization-rate and formation of crystalline clusters makes palm stearin unpopular in fat-based products especially in their post-processing stage. Addition of emulsifiers is commonly used to overcome these drawbacks, since they are believed to induce or stabilize specific polymorphs of palm stearin. Glyceryl monostearate (GMS) was applied in palm stearin (1%, 2%, and 4% w/w) in this study, and the mechanisms on crystallization of palm stearin were investigated by means of differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), X-ray diffraction (XRD), and polarized light microscopic (PLM) method. Data showed that GMS prompted the isothermal crystallization (15–30 °C) in a dose-dependent manner. Crystallization turned to low super-cooling sporadic nucleation at 30 °C. Besides, GMS led to an earlier onset of crystallization during cooling. GMS-palm stearin blends crystallized to form α polymorphs at first and subsequently underwent polymorphic transition to become β′ polymorphs. Addition of 4% w/w GMS in palm stearin significantly decreased the size of crystals, which is helpful to reduce the grainy mouth feel of fat products in practice.

In these times of potential energy crisis and climate change, search for alternative sources for conventional fuel has led us to bio-diesel. Vegetable oils are typically highly dense and viscous and to overcome it we prefer the methyl ester of the oil. In our study we have used methyl ester of Palm stearin oil, which can be found in our country (India) abundantly, and conducted emission and performance tests on a non-modified diesel engine. Diesel along with four different blends of 5%, 10%, 20% and 30% by mass were used to carry the tests in different loading conditions. The results have shown promising possibility of the use of palm-stearin oil blended bio-diesel as CO, NO X and HC emissions reduced and B-30 provided the best mechanical efficiency.

In this study, enzymatic interesterification of hybrid palm stearin mixed with palm kernel oil (HPS/PKO, 70/30) was conducted to provide a new source of vegetable fat, which was compared with the traditional palm stearin blend (PS/PKO). The triacylglycerides results indicated that the enzyme (Lipozyme TL IM) hydrolyzed and esterified lauric, palmitic, and oleic acids. Further, the interesterification decreased the melting and crystallization temperatures by ≈2°C. Additionally, it allowed faster structuring and/or crystallization in both blends as indicated by high G' values (3.6 × 10 7  Pa for PS/PKO and 1.3 × 10 7  Pa for HPS/PKO). Moreover, enzymatic interesterification promoted rapid stabilization of the number and size of HPS/PKO crystals. The results indicated that HPS/PKO is a healthier alternative to PS/PKO with regard to the proportion of unsaturated fatty acids. Finally, the rheological and microstructure analyses suggested that HPS/PKO enzymatically interesterified is a promising candidate for utilization in various fatty products.

Due to its hard consistency and low plasticity, palm stearin (PS) has limited industrial applications. As described in the literature, the addition of limonene to lipid systems has been shown to influence their crystallization pattern, such as by softening consistency and accelerating polymorphic transition. The objective of this study was to evaluate different concentrations of limonene (1–10%) added to PS, regarding its crystallization behavior. This study reports that limonene addition was able to reduce solid fat content (SFC) and consistency, and delayed crystallization, with more evidenced effects when the highest concentration of limonene was applied (10%). Microstructure and polymorphism were significantly affected by the highest concentrations (7.5% and 10%), tending to the formation of small crystals and their agglomeration, with acceleration of polymorphism. Blending this fat with limonene may broaden its application, considering softer options of PSs.

This work investigates the combustion, performance and emission characteristics of neat palm stearin biodiesel (PSBD) fuelled diesel engine with silver oxide as a additive in various mass fractions (5 and 10 ppm) and various particle size (10 and 20 nm) particles and the results compared with conventional diesel. Experiments were conducted in a natural aspirated, single-cylinder diesel engine at a constant speed and compression ratio of 1500 rpm and 18:1 respectively. Silver oxide (AgO) nano particles were added with neat biodiesel using ultrasonicator. The experimental investigation on diesel engine reveals that the addition of silver oxide nano-additives to PSBD resulted in enhancement in ignition characteristics because of enhanced surface area to volume ratio. Further, the addition of AgO nano-additive to PSBD resulted in enhancement in brake thermal efficiency (BTE) with a reduction in brake specific fuel consumption (BSFC). The experimental results also show that the AgO nanoparticles at 20 nm particle size and 10 ppm concentartion promote an improved level of hydrocarbon (HC), carbon monoxide (CO), smoke emissions and nitrogen (NO x ) emission than neat biodiesel. Further, The AgO nano-additive inclusion at different 10 ppm significantly reduces the peak pressure and increases the net Heat Release rate values and its corresponding CA. An inclusion of 20 nm nano-additive at 10 ppm concentartion in PSBD reduces the In Cylinder Pressure and increases the Net Heat Release Rate values by 2.2 and 4.7% respectively than PSBD.

A new coating formulation was developed to eliminate the factor that caused black spots on the iron premix surface, used for making Double Fortified Salt. The formulation is a suspension of titanium dioxide in soy stearin, prepared with ethanol and dichloromethane and applied with a glass sprayer and pan coater. 0–20% w/w titanium dioxide was suspended in 10% w/w soy stearin/hydroxypropyl methylcellulose. Coating with a suspension of 15% w/w TiO2 in 10% w/w soy stearin ensured that all the TiO2 adheres to the premix surface, giving no chance for the recycling of iron contaminated TiO2, which caused the black spot. The new coating formulation ensured that over 90% iodine in Double Fortified Salt was retained after 6 months at 45 °C, 60–70% RH. The whiteness of the premix (L* = 86.4) matched the Double Fortified Salt whiteness (L* = 86.8). Thus, making the new coating method as effective as the previous in desirable characteristics. More so, the new coating method simplifies the existing method by merging the previous color masking, and double coating steps into one step.