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Functional diversity is an important aspect of biodiversity, but its relationship to species diversity in time and space is poorly understood. Here we compare spatial patterns of functional and taxonomic diversity across marine and terrestrial systems to identify commonalities in their respective ecological and evolutionary drivers. We placed species-level ecological traits into comparable multi-dimensional frameworks for two model systems, marine bivalves and terrestrial birds, and used global species-occurrence data to examine the distribution of functional diversity with latitude and longitude. In both systems, tropical faunas show high total functional richness (FR) but low functional evenness (FE) (i.e. the tropics contain a highly skewed distribution of species among functional groups). Functional groups that persist toward the poles become more uniform in species richness, such that FR declines and FE rises with latitude in both systems. Temperate assemblages are more functionally even than tropical assemblages subsampled to temperate levels of species richness, suggesting that high species richness in the tropics reflects a high degree of ecological specialization within a few functional groups and/or factors that favour high recent speciation or reduced extinction rates in those groups.

Saturn's moon Titan has a surface that is dominated by molecular materials, much of which are photochemically produced in the moon's atmosphere. This outlook reviews the potential minerals that would be expected to form on the surface and subsurface of Titan from these molecular solids. We seek to classify them and look toward how the future study of these minerals will enhance our understanding of this planetary body. The classification uses the basis of intermolecular interactions, with the materials grouped into \"Molecular solids,\" \"Molecular co-crystals,\" and \"Hydrates\" classes alongside speculation on other possible classes of potential Titan minerals.

Jurassic siliceous hot-spring (sinter) deposits from Argentine Patagonia were evaluated to determine the distribution and preservation quality of their entombed microbial fabrics. Detailed study showed that the Claudia palaeo-geothermal field hosts the best-preserved sinter apron in the Deseado Massif geological province, where we also found hot-spring silica–biotic interactions extending into hydrothermally influenced fluvial and lacustrine settings. Carbonaceous material was identified by petrography and Raman spectroscopy mapping; it is inter-laminated with silica across proximal vent to distal marsh facies. The ubiquitous presence of microbial biosignatures has application to studies of hydrothermal settings of early life on Earth and potentially Mars.

Earth analogs are indispensable to investigate mineral assemblages on Mars because they enable detailed analysis of spectroscopic data from Mars and aid environmental interpretation. Samples from four sites in the Iberian Pyrite Belt (El Villar, Calanas, Quebrantahuesos, and Tharsis) were investigated using mineralogical, chemical, and spectroscopic techniques, with a focus on clay minerals and alteration environments. They represent Earth analogs of areas on Mars that underwent acidic alteration. X-ray diffraction and transmittance mid-infrared data indicate that the rocks were subjected to several degrees of acid alteration corresponding to assemblages characterized by the following mixtures: (1) illite, chlorite, interstratified chlorite-vermiculite, kaolinite-smectite, and kaolinite; (2) illite, kaolinite, and alunite; and (3) jarosite and goethite. According to mineral stability data, these three assemblages correspond to pH values 7-5, 5-3, and <3, respectively. The lack of goethite in the illite-kaolinite alunite assemblage suggests an alteration in reducing conditions. Illite was progressively dissolved by acidic alteration but is sufficiently resilient not to be diagnostic of the intensity of the alteration. Illite and kaolinite were the two most abundant phyllosilicate minerals observed, and the main reaction involving phyllosilicates was the alteration of illite to kaolinite. Mixed-layer phases appeared mainly in the mildest degree of acid alteration, with few exceptions. This suggests a transition from a mechanism dominated by transformation to a mechanism dominated by dissolution-precipitation as the intensity of the acid alteration increases. Our results highlight the sparse kaolinite-alunite occurrences on Mars as worthy of specific investigation. Acid alteration on Mars is expected to be patchy and/or consisting of fine alteration rims. Alunite occurrences on Mars in the absence of goethite may indicate an acid alteration in reducing conditions. Kaolinite produced through acid alteration on Mars is expected to exist mainly as an end-member phase of low crystallinity, which would enhance IR absorption and increase its visibility.

Microbialites comprise the mineralized record of early life on Earth and preserve a spectrum of fabrics that reflect complex physical, chemical, and biological interactions. The relatively rarity of microbialites in modern environments, however, challenges our interpretation of ancient structures. Here we report the occurrence of microbial mats, mineral precipitates, and oncoids in the Laguna Negra, a high-altitude hypersaline Andean lake in Catamarca Province, Argentina. Laguna Negra is a Ca-Na-Cl brine where abundant carbonate precipitation takes place. Extreme environmental conditions, including high UV radiation, elevated salinity, and temperature extremes, restrict multicellular life so that mineralization reflects a combination of local hydrologic conditions, lake geochemistry, and microbial activity. The resulting carbonates consist of micritic laminae, botryoidal cement fans, and isopachous cement laminae that are strikingly similar to those observed in Proterozoic stromatolites, providing insight into mechanisms of mineralization. Here, increased saturation with respect to carbonate minerals reflects mixing of spring-fed inlets and lake waters, favoring microbialite formation and preservation. This highlights the importance of hydrological mixing zones in microbialite formation and as taphonomic windows to record microbial activity. Recent discoveries of minerals related to evaporating playa-lake systems on Mars further highlights the potential of Laguna Negra to provide critical insight into biosignature preservation in both terrestrial and extraterrestrial settings.

Studies in terrestrial systems suggest that long-distance propagule dispersal is important for landscape pattern and dynamics, but largely inconsequential for local demography. By contrast, in marine systems, dispersal at regional scales may drive local dynamics, because many species may have large mean dispersal distances. To assess variation in marine dispersal scales, we estimated mean dispersal distances from genetic isolation-by-distance slopes. Estimates ranged widely, from a few meters to hundreds of kilometers. Dispersal differed among taxonomic groups (macroalgae, invertebrates, and fish) and among species in different functional groups (e.g., producers and herbivores). Differences in dispersal scale have important implications for marine community dynamics, reserve design, responses to large-scale perturbations, and evolution of interacting species. To place genetic estimates of marine dispersal in context, we compared them to other measures of dispersal in the ocean and to estimates of dispersal on land. Maximum scales of dispersal by sedentary marine species exceeded maximum estimates of terrestrial plant dispersal by at least one to two orders of magnitude. Direct and genetic estimates of terrestrial plant dispersal were comparable to estimates of marine plant dispersal. Rates of marine macroalgal range expansion, however, far exceeded spread rates of terrestrial plants. Terrestrial plant spread rates were more similar to those of short-dispersing marine organisms that lack secondary dispersal by drifting adults. Genetic estimates of dispersal by different functional groups suggest that herbivores typically disperse much farther than their plant resources both on land and in the sea, although the timing, frequency, and consequences of dispersal may differ in the two systems. Terrestrial herbivores have more flexible dispersal behavior than marine organisms that disperse each generation by planktonic transport of larvae. Our results validate some long-standing views about the greater dispersal potential of species in the ocean, but also highlight the extreme heterogeneity in dispersal scale among marine species. As a result, development of a community perspective on marine connectivity will require consideration of multiple dispersal mechanisms and scales.

The first definitive evidence for continental vents on Mars is the in situ detection of amorphous silica-rich outcrops by the Mars Exploration Rover Spirit. These outcrops have been tentatively interpreted as the result of either acid sulfate leaching in fumarolic environments or direct precipitation from hot springs. Such environments represent prime targets for upcoming astrobiology missions but remain difficult to identify with certainty, especially from orbit. To contribute to the identification of fumaroles and hot spring deposits on Mars, we surveyed their characteristics at the analog site of the Solfatara volcanic crater in central Italy. Several techniques of mineral identification (VNIR spectroscopy, Raman spectroscopy, XRD) were used both in the field and in the laboratory on selected samples. The faulted crater walls showed evidence of acid leaching and alteration into the advanced argillic-alunitic facies, with colorful deposits containing alunite, jarosite, and/or hematite. Sublimates containing various Al and Fe hydroxyl-sulfates were observed around the active fumarole vents at 90°C. One vent at 160°C was characterized by different sublimates enriched in As and Hb sulfide species. Amorphous silica and alunite assemblages that are diagnostic of silicic alteration were also observed at the Fangaia mud pots inside the crater. A wide range of minerals was identified at the 665 m diameter Solfatara crater that is diagnostic of acid-steam heated alteration of a trachytic, porous bedrock. Importantly, this mineral diversity was captured at each site investigated with at least one of the techniques used, which lends confidence for the recognition of similar environments with the next-generation Mars rovers.

The availability of terrestrial sites that are martian analogs allows researchers to investigate Mars using knowledge gained on Earth. Among the terrestrial analog sites for Mars is Craters of the Moon National Monument (COTM) in Idaho, U.S.A. Craters of the Moon National Monument is home to over 60 basalt lava flows, many of which have been dated from 2050 to 18 340 years before present (y.b.p.). Following previous authors, we examined the chemistry and petrogenesis of COTM basalts compared to basaltic martian rocks, martian meteorites, and meteorite clasts, and then examined the results of chemical weathering of the basaltic flows. Results of our comparative chemical analysis suggest COTM basalts are generally more evolved than the martian materials, with a few notable exceptions. Several COTM flow basalts, including rocks of the >18 000 year old Kimama flow, have high FeO, TiO2, and P2O5 contents similar to the Wishstone and Watchtower class rocks analyzed at Gusev Crater, Mars, by the Mars Exploration Rover Spirit. The youngest basalts of COTM, such as those of the Minidoka (3890 y.b.p.) and Blue Dragon (2050 y.b.p.) flows have similarities in SiO2, alkali contents, and mineralogical norms with select clasts in meteorite Northwest Africa (NWA) 7034. These similarities over a range of flow ages therefore suggest that COTM basalts have the potential to shed important light on specific igneous processes occurring on Mars. Many of the basaltic rocks measured by rovers on Mars are thought to have experienced chemical weathering during aqueous interactions; however, few basalt weathering rates exist for terrestrial Mars-relevant field environments to help interpret these processes. COTM, which has important similarities to some martian rocks discussed above, also represents a basalt flow chronosequence, and therefore allows for the investigation of basalt weathering as a function of time. We measured the depth of developed porosity in a suite of basalt flows ranging from 2050 to 18 340 y.b.p., and compared field weathering relationships at COTM to weathering rinds developed on the Gusev Crater martian rocks Humphrey, Champagne, Mazatzal, and Wooly Patch. Our results indicate that depths of incipient weathering in COTM rocks increase with time at a rate of 2.32 × 10-2 to 3.04 × 10-2 µm/yr, which is comparable to other terrestrial advance rates. Interestingly, this rate also indicates that chemical weathering strongly outpaces physical weathering even in this arid to semi arid environment. Weathering primarily of the matrix glass indicates that glass may be functioning as the profile-controlling mineral, which may have implications for chemical weathering in glass-rich rocks on Mars. Weathering rates of glass and other minerals can also help constrain the conditions (pH, temperature) of alteration on Mars. Of the altered martian rocks we compared to COTM (Humphrey, Champagne, Mazatzal, and Wooly Patch), altered surfaces of Mazatzal rock at Gusev Crater show the most similarities to weathered surfaces at COTM. Comparisons of chemical weathering in COTM basalts with altered surfaces of rocks in Gusev Crater, Mars, indicate Gusev Crater martian rocks have undergone significantly more aqueous alteration than that experienced by basaltic flows at COTM.

1. Marine herbivorous fishes are considered to be of critical importance in determining the biological structure of shallow reef environments, and by implication have key roles in carbon flux in reef ecosystems. Despite this, the nutritional processes that underpin these critical ecological roles have received comparatively little attention. 2. Here we give an overview of recent progress in the nutritional ecology of marine herbivorous fishes, and then examine two recent paradigms that we consider important in the development of the field: (i) the role of temperature in latitudinal gradients of diversity and abundance, and (ii) the impact of these fishes on coral reefs. Our aim is to illustrate how an integrative nutritional ecology approach can enrich insights gained from studies of fish herbivory, and to emphasize the distinctive differences between herbivory in marine and terrestrial systems. 3. We argue that much of the work on trophic biology in marine herbivorous fishes has focused on the ecological impacts of fishes on reefs, the deterrent properties of marine algae, and the morphological and mechanical aspects of ingestion. This has come at the expense of two of the elements necessary for an integrative understanding of feeding ecology, that is, food composition and the physiological processes involved in nutrient extraction and utilization. Together, these factors have hindered the development of the nutritional framework for analysing food resources, feeding patterns and evolutionary trends that has proved successful for terrestrial vertebrate herbivores. 4. The reef grazing and algal secondary metabolite paradigms, while both extremely productive, have failed to develop the clear predictive framework for diet choice required in broader contexts such as reef management and understanding the evolution of herbivory. The lack of a focus on nutritional factors has led to premature conclusions on the influence of temperature on algal digestion, both at the level of digestive processes and the biogeography of marine faunas. 5. Some marine herbivorous fishes appear to be bending the 'rules' of hindgut fermentation, especially with respect to temperature and fermentation substrates, and so the study of nutritional ecology in these animals has potential to generate novel insights for the field of vertebrate nutrition in general.

Large amounts of nitrate salts occur in very specific environments and somewhat rare hyper-arid conditions, which may provide clues to fundamentally different nitrogen cycling and life survival mechanisms. Remote detection of ancient and modern nitrates on Earth and on other planetary bodies where they may occur requires a detailed understanding of their visible to near infrared (VNIR) spectral signatures. This study explores the VNIR spectral characteristics of several synthetic nitrate salts, sulfate minerals, and nitrate-bearing field samples from the Atacama Desert, Chile, to identify diagnostic spectral features of nitrate and possible interferences from other coexisting minerals. Results indicated that most of the nitrate salts have characteristic absorptions around 1.81, 1.94, 2.06, 2.21, and 2.42 µm. A significant positive correlation exists between the continuum-removed band depths of the 2.42 µm absorption and nitrate contents for the Atacama regolith samples, especially for samples with >10 wt% nitrate. The five absorption features of nitrate in the field spectra collected from multiple nitrate-rich regions in the Atacama Desert were then evaluated to determine the variabilities in these features in natural settings, while the band depths of 2.42 µm absorption were further calculated on the continuum-removed field spectra to estimate the nitrate abundances at the study sites. This work will supplement spectral libraries where nitrate spectra are lacking and have implications for future comparisons to planetary spectra to search for potentially life-related nitrate on Mars.