Explore the vast range of titles available.

Pretesting and posttesting have long been implemented in classrooms as methods of testing and improving learning. Prior research has been mixed on the relative benefits of pretesting versus posttesting, with some studies finding pretesting to be more beneficial, and others finding posttesting to be more beneficial. True/False testing is a particularly easy-to-implement method and is regularly used in classrooms. However, relatively little is known about how these tests affect learning. Three experiments address the effects of true/false pre- and posttests on learning correct information and intrusion rates of false information. We find consistent benefits of both pretesting and posttesting but significantly higher intrusion rates for posttesting relative to pretesting, a finding that persisted despite inclusion of simple True/False feedback (Experiment 2) and substantive feedback (Experiment 3). Although the difference between pretesting and posttesting intrusion rates was still significant with the addition of substantive feedback, overall intrusion rates were greatly reduced.

Introduction and Methods A large number of behavioral studies show that retrieval practice is a powerful way of strengthening learning of new information. Repeated retrieval might support long‐term retention in a quantitative sense by inducing stronger episodic representations or in a qualitative sense by contributing to the formation of more gist‐like representations. Here we used fMRI to examine the brain bases related to the learning effects following retrieval practice and provide imaging support for both views by showing increased activation of anterior and posterior hippocampus regions during a delayed memory test. Results Brain activity in the posterior hippocampus increased linearly as a function of number of successful retrievals during initial learning, whereas anterior hippocampus activity was restricted to items retrieved many but not few times during the learning phase. Conclusion Taken together, these findings indicate that retrieval practice strengthens subsequent retention via “dual action” in the anterior and posterior hippocampus, possibly reflecting coding of individual experiences as well as integration and generalization across multiple experiences. Our findings are of educational significance by providing insight into the brain bases of a learning method of applied relevance. The hippocampus (HC) and the “testing effect” have each been studied extensively for their potential in memory and learning. Here we provide novel evidence related to the well‐established “testing effect” by highlighting that retrieval practice facilitates learning by strengthening processing in both the anterior and posterior HC. These findings are of educational significance by providing unique insights into the brain bases of a learning method of applied relevance and emphasize the important role of hippocampus for durable learning in school.

Recent research has demonstrated a relationship between retrieval organization and the efficacy of prior repeated retrieval on delayed tests. The present study asked why repeated study engenders higher recall at a short delay despite lower retrieval organization but produces a decline at a long delay, and why repeated retrieval engenders lower recall at a short delay despite higher retrieval organization but produces stable recall over time. This relationship was examined through the inclusion of two successive recall tests—one immediately after learning method and one a week later. Results replicated the interaction in recall between learning method and delay characterizing the testing effect and, critically, revealed the qualitative differences inherent in the retrieval organization of each method. Specifically, stable recall in repeated retrieval was accompanied by strong and sustained conceptual organization, whereas organization for repeated study was tenuous and weakened across tests. These differences quantitatively were assessed through the use of five targeted analyses: specifically, the examination of cumulative recall curves, the accumulation of organization across time (a curve akin to cumulative recall), item gains and losses across time, changes in the size of categories across time, and the fate of specific clusters of recalled items across time. These differences are discussed within the context of differential processes occurring during learning method.

Research has shown that testing during learning can enhance the long-term retention of text material. In two experiments, we investigated the testing effect with a fill-in-the-blank test on the retention of text material. In Experiment 1, using a coherent text, we found no retention benefit of testing compared to a restudy (control) condition. In Experiment 2, text coherence was disrupted by scrambling the order of the sentences from the text. The material was subsequently presented as a list of facts as opposed to connected discourse. For the incoherent version of the text, testing slowed down the rate of forgetting compared to a restudy (control) condition. The results suggest that the connectedness of materials can play an important role in determining the magnitude of testing benefits for long-term retention. Testing with a completion test seems most beneficial for unconnected materials and less so for highly structured materials.

Retrieval practice is known to lead to better retention of a to-be-learned material than restudy (i.e., the testing effect). However, few studies have investigated retrieval practice in relation to working memory capacity (WMC) and personality characteristics such as grittiness (Grit) and need for cognition (NFC). In two experiments, we examined retrieval practice and restudy of Swahili-Swedish word pairs in relation to individual differences in Grit and NFC. In Experiment 1, using a between-subjects design, a significant main effect of retention interval was qualified by a Group × Retention Interval interaction. However, there were no effects of Grit or NFC. In Experiment 2, a within-subjects design was used, and a measure of WMC was included. The analyses revealed a testing effect; but again, WMC, Grit, and NFC were not significantly associated with performance. These results indicate that retrieval practice levels out the playing field regarding WMC, NFC, and Grit.

Prior testing can facilitate subsequent learning, a phenomenon termed the forward testing effect (FTE). We examined a metacognitive account of this effect, which proposes that the FTE occurs because retrieval leads to strategy optimizations during later learning. One prediction of this account is that tests that require less retrieval effort (e.g., multiple-choice relative to cued-recall) should lead to a smaller benefit on new learning. We examined the impact of interpolated multiple-choice or cued-recall testing (relative to no prior testing) on new learning of a four-section STEM text passage. The effect sizes associated with the FTE were numerically, though not significantly larger when the prior tests were cued-recall than multiple-choice, but only when interpolated judgments of learning were not queried. Further, when multiple-choice tests were made more difficult through lure similarity, the FTE was similarly increased. Finally, the FTE was eliminated entirely when participants provided four JOLs after reading each text section. We believe this elimination of the FTE stemmed from an increase in performance for the control participants induced by reactivity from repeated metacognitive queries requiring deep metacognitive reflection. Taken together, these experiments support a metacognitive account of FTE and have important implications for how educators and students should employ retrieval practice and leverage the benefits of metacognitive reflection to improve new learning.

Testing of to-be-learned material facilitates subsequent learning of new material. We investigated this forward effect of testing in two experiments using the whole/part and part/whole transfer paradigms with categorized word lists. Learning was assessed for recall of individual words, higher order categories, and category clustering. In each experiment participants learned two lists in which the number of tests on the first list was varied. The first list contained either twice as many items as the second list (whole/part paradigm) or half as many items as the second list (part/whole paradigm). In the experimental condition, the part list contained half the items of the whole list. In the control condition, the two lists were unique. In the whole/part paradigm, learning of the part list was poorer in the experimental than in the control condition. Although testing during whole list learning facilitated learning of the part list, it did not moderate the negative transfer effect. In the part/whole paradigm, learning of the whole list was better in the experimental than in the control condition, and this positive transfer effect was strengthened by repeated testing of the part list. The findings are discussed in the context of discrimination and encoding explanations of the forward effect of testing.

Natural category learning is important in science education. One strategy that has been empirically supported for enhancing category learning is testing, which facilitates not only the learning of previously studied information (backward testing effect) but also the learning of newly studied information (forward testing effect). However, in category learning, such benefits of testing have mostly been examined without explicit instructions. This is not aligned with a real educational practice where teachers often provide students with explicit instructions that highlight the diagnostic features of the category. Thus, we investigated the effect of interim testing and feature highlighting on rock category learning and whether the provision of feature highlighting further enhances testing benefits. The participants learned 12 rock categories, which were divided into two sections (Sections A and B). They studied a series of rock images with or without feature highlighting and were given an interim test or not on Section A before proceeding to Section B. After Section B, all the participants took a final test in which they had to classify both old and new rock images of the studied categories. Three experiments demonstrated the benefits of interim testing (compared to restudy) for both previously and newly studied categories. However, feature highlighting did not further enhance learning and sometimes even impeded learning. The findings suggest that providing more information is not always better than providing less information in natural category learning.

The testing effect is a well-known concept referring to gains in learning and retention that can occur when students take a practice test on studied material before taking a final test on the same material. Research demonstrates that students who take practice tests often outperform students in nontesting learning conditions such as restudying, practice, filler activities, or no presentation of the material However, evidence-based meta-analysis is needed to develop a comprehensive understanding of the conditions under which practice tests enhance or inhibit learning. This meta-analysis fills this gap by examining the effects of practice tests versus nontesting learning conditions. Results reveal that practice tests are more beneficial for learning than restudying and all other comparison conditions. Mean effect sizes were moderated by the features of practice tests, participant and study characteristics, outcome constructs, and methodological features of the studies. Findings may guide the use of practice tests to advance student learning, and inform students, teachers, researchers, and policymakers. This article concludes with the theoretical and practical implications of the meta-analysis.

Given the growing interest in retrieval practice among educators, it is valuable to know when retrieval practice does and does not improve student learning—particularly for educators who have limited classroom time and resources. In this literature review, we developed a narrow operational definition for “classroom research” compared to previous reviews of the literature. We screened nearly 2000 abstracts and systematically coded 50 experiments to establish a clearer picture of benefits from retrieval practice in real world educational settings. Our review yielded 49 effect sizes and a total n = 5374, the majority of which (57%) revealed medium or large benefits from retrieval practice. We found that retrieval practice improved learning for a variety of education levels, content areas, experimental designs, final test delays, retrieval and final test formats, and timing of retrieval practice and feedback; however, only 6% of experiments were conducted in non-WEIRD countries. Based on our review of the literature, we make eight recommendations for future research and provide educators with a better understanding of the robust benefits of retrieval practice across a range of school and classroom settings.