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The threat posed by large carnivores to livestock and humans makes peaceful coexistence between them difficult. Effective implementation of conservation laws and policies depends on the attitudes of local residents toward the target species. There are many known correlates of human attitudes toward carnivores, but they have only been assessed at the scale of the individual. Because human societies are organized hierarchically, attitudes are presumably influenced by different factors at different scales of social organization, but this scale dependence has not been examined. We used structured interview surveys to quantitatively assess the attitudes of a Buddhist pastoral community toward snow leopards (Panthera uncia) and wolves (Canis lupus). We interviewed 381 individuals from 24 villages within 6 study sites across the high‐elevation Spiti Valley in the Indian Trans‐Himalaya. We gathered information on key explanatory variables that together captured variation in individual and village‐level socioeconomic factors. We used hierarchical linear models to examine how the effect of these factors on human attitudes changed with the scale of analysis from the individual to the community. Factors significant at the individual level were gender, education, and age of the respondent (for wolves and snow leopards), number of income sources in the family (wolves), agricultural production, and large‐bodied livestock holdings (snow leopards). At the community level, the significant factors included the number of smaller‐bodied herded livestock killed by wolves and mean agricultural production (wolves) and village size and large livestock holdings (snow leopards). Our results show that scaling up from the individual to higher levels of social organization can highlight important factors that influence attitudes of people toward wildlife and toward formal conservation efforts in general. Such scale‐specific information can help managers apply conservation measures at appropriate scales. Our results reiterate the need for conflict management programs to be multipronged.

Social perception of ungulates and their management depends on both their abundance and the socioeconomic context. However, an approach that addresses this issue is currently unavailable. Our objective was to employ a survey in Spain (n = 440) to evaluate the knowledge and perceptions on the eight species of wild ungulates that inhabit the Iberian Peninsula, and their abundance. The results showed that respondents were unaware of the existence of many of the species. Only wild boar (95% of the surveyed population) and red deer (72%) were widely identified. Respondents perceived that urban, agricultural, and livestock contexts were the most frequent suffering overabundance, with the wild boar as most relevant species (86%). This study illustrates how a better understanding of overabundance and public perceptions is important to ensure effective communication on ungulate population status and to improve public support for their management, thus avoiding bias toward certain species, impacts, or specific contexts.

Risk perceptions and attitudes toward animals often explain tolerance for wildlife and management preferences. However, little is understood about how these relationships vary across different geographic regions and stäkeholder groups. To address this gap in knowledge, we compared differences in acceptance capacity, risk perceptions, perceived enjoyment from outdoor cats, and experiences with outdoor cats among 3 groups (generalpublic, conservation community, and animal-welfare community) in Hawaii and Florida, two states with large conservation challenges. We combined independently collected data from Florida and Hawaii, to determine how perception of the risks presented by outdoor cats, group membership, and state of residence influenced people's tolerance for outdoor cats. Florida respondents were significantly more tolerant of outdoor cats and less concerned about cat-related risks than Hawaii respondents (p < 0.05). In both states, animal-welfare group members reported greater enjoyment seeing cats and perceived a smaller increase in the cat population and lower levels of risk than other groups (p < 0.05). All groups exhibited similar relationships between acceptance capacity and enjoyment and the perceived increase in the cat population. Our results suggest public tolerance for cats varied due to the influence of local or geographical concerns, but that strongly held beliefs, risk perceptions, and feelings about cats explained more of the variance in stakeholder tolerance. Las percepciones de riesgo y las actitudes hacia los animales explican comúnmente la tolerancia a la vida silvestre y a las preferencias de manejo. Sin embargo, se entiende poco sobre cómo varían estas relaciones entre regiones geográficas diferentes y entre grupos de interés. Para dirigirnos a este vacío en el conocimiento, comparamos las diferencias en la capacidad de aceptación, las percepciones de riesgo, el disfrute percibido obtenido de los gatos sueltos y las experiencias con gatos sueltos entre tres grupos (público general, comunidad de conservación y comunidad de bienestar animal) en Hawái y Florida, dos estados con grandes retos para la conservación. Combinamos datos colectados independientemente en Florida y Hawái para determinar cómo la percepción del riesgo por gatos sueltos, la membrecía a un grupo y el estado de residencia influyeron sobre la tolerancia de las personas por los gatos sueltos. Los encuestados en Florida fueron significativamente más tolerantes a los gatos sueltos y estuvieron menos preocupados por los riesgos relacionados con gatos que los encuestados en Hawái (p < 0.05). En ambos estados, los miembros de los grupos de bienestar animal reportaron un mayor disfrute al ver gatos y percibieron un pequeño incremento en la población de gatos y niveles de riesgo más bajos que otros grupos (p < 0.05). Todos los grupos exhibieron relaciones similares entre la capacidad de aceptación y el disfrute y el incremento percibido de la población de gatos. Nuestros resultados sugieren que la tolerancia del público por los gatos varió debido a la influencia de las preocupaciones locales o geográficas, pero también que las creencias arraigadas, la percepción de riesgo y los sentimientos hacia los gatos explicaron más de la varianza en la tolerancia de los accionistas.

Biodiversity-friendly farming is a growing area of discussion among farmers, as well as in government departments and non-government organizations interested in conservation on private land. Those seeking to encourage biodiversity on farms must understand the production challenges presented by wildlife. Such species destroy agricultural commodities or present threats to family, pets, or infrastructure. A survey of farmers in the Canadian Maritime provinces sought to understand the drivers of tolerance. Our results demonstrated that estimated monetary losses from a species were largely unrelated to the perceived acceptability of those losses. Rather, the type of nuisance—damage to crops/property or threat to the safety of people, pets, or livestock—determined whether a loss would be perceived as acceptable and if that acceptability would influence tolerance. For damaging species, the perception of cultural benefits seemed able to convert high estimated economic losses to acceptable ones, for overall tolerance. For threatening species, however, minor perceived financial losses seemed augmented by low perceived benefits and made unacceptable, leading to intolerance. Female, older, and part-time farmers were most likely to identify threatening species as a nuisance. The use of an elicitation-based survey design provided novel insight as a result of the lack of prompts, but also presented analytical challenges that weakened predictive power. Recommendations are given for further research and management.

Human–wildlife conflict challenges wildlife managers globally. In Japan, the Asiatic black bear (Ursus thibetanus) is listed as a vulnerable species under IUCN's Red List of Threatened Species. In Hyogo Prefecture it is listed as an endangered local population, but bears are considered a nuisance because of agricultural damage and occasional human casualties. The bear population in the prefecture is increasing, and human–bear conflicts are also increasing. We conducted a mail survey in July 2010 of residents in 58 villages (n  =  2,315) to examine their perceptions of risks, government performance, and acceptance of bears. Survey response was 52% (n  =  1,210). Eighty-one percent of respondents reported that risks from bears had increased and 83% believed there were too many bears around their village. Risk perception was negatively correlated with acceptance capacity of bears. In contrast to our prediction, increased agreement that government provided necessary information was associated with greater perceived risk from bears. However, agreement that the government listened to people's concerns was a significant factor predicting respondents' behavior in taking preventive actions such as reporting bear sightings. This study suggests that, by providing problem-prevention information and adequate opportunities for residents to voice their concerns, government officials may be able to increase residents' confidence in their ability to prevent bear-related problems and their tolerance of interactions with bears. If widespread, such outcomes would improve conservation of bears of Japan.

Estimates of beaver (Castor canadensis) density play an important role in wildlife managers’ decisions about beaver population management, because managers anticipate higher incidence of problem complaints when a beaver population increases. To manage the impacts of beavers in an urbanizing landscape, managers need better information on changes in stakeholder beliefs and attitudes as beaver and human densities reach high levels. We conducted additional analysis of data collected in 2002 through mail surveys of residents in New York and Massachusetts to test hypothesized relationships between beaver density and damage experience, attitudes toward beavers, and norms about beaver management actions. Consistent with previous research, we found a correlation between personal experience with beaver-related problems, lower acceptance capacity for beavers, and higher acceptability of lethal beaver management actions. In comparison to residents living in areas with low beaver density, residents of areas with high beaver density were more likely to: experience beaver-related problems; believe that beaver-related damage had greatly increased in their area; express a preference for beaver population reduction; express less tolerant attitudes toward beaver presence; and accept lethal control of beavers as a response to beaver-related problems. These findings add to understanding of wildlife acceptance capacity, generally, and tolerance of beavers specifically. Based on our findings, we propose a conceptual model representing key dynamic interrelationships between stakeholder attitudes, norms, and common beaver management practices. We discuss a causal loop diagram representing the model to illuminate the challenges wildlife managers are likely to face as the context for beaver management changes. The model articulates the dynamic complexity of urban beaver management and fills a gap in the literature by conceptualizing beaver management as a coupled human–natural system. Such models may aid communication in locales where high densities of beaver and people set the stage for human–wildlife conflict and emergence of disruptive wildlife management issues.

Hawaii’s game animals are all non-native species, which provokes human–wildlife conflict among stakeholders. The management of human–wildlife conflict in Hawaii is further complicated by the discrete nature of island communities. Our goal was to understand the desires and perceived values or impacts of game held by residents of Hawaii regarding six game species [pigs (Sus scrofa), goats (Capra hircus), mouflon (Ovis musimon), axis deer (Axis axis), turkeys (Melagris gallopavo), and doves (Geopelia striata)]. We measured the desired abundance of game on the six main Hawaiian Islands using the potential for conflict index and identified explanatory variables for those desires via recursive partitioning. In 2011 we surveyed 5,407 residents (2,360 random residents and 3,047 pre-identified stakeholders). Overall 54.5 and 27.6 % of the emailed and mailed surveys were returned (n = 1,510). A non-respondent survey revealed that respondents and non-respondents had similar interest in wildlife, and a similar education level. The desired abundance of game differed significantly among stakeholders, species, and islands. The desired abundance scores were higher for axis deer, mouflon, and turkeys compared to pigs, goats or doves. Enjoyment at seeing game and the cultural value of game were widespread explanatory variables for desired abundance. Models for Lanai emphasized the economic value of game, whereas models for Maui identified the potential for game to contaminate soil and water. Models for Oahu and Kauai revealed concern for human health and safety. Given our findings we recommend managers design separate management plans for each island taking into consideration the values of residents.

Management of wildlife stakeholder acceptance capacity (WSAC) for cougars (Puma concolor) presents a formidable challenge for wildlife managers concerned with coexistence of this species with humans, although considerations of WSAC may provide supplemental or even alternative approaches to direct manipulation of cougars and their habitat. We used personal interviews (n=34) and a mail-back questionnaire (n=805) from a stratified random sample of households to measure WSAC for cougars in Montana and identify factors that affect WSAC. A 3-variable model that included stakeholder perception of cougar population levels, attitudes toward cougars, and risk beliefs about cougars correctly predicted respondents' WSAC 85% of the time. Compared to persons desiring stable or increased populations, respondents who desired a decrease in cougar numbers were more likely to perceive that populations of cougars were increasing, have negative attitudes toward cougars, have risk beliefs that implied dread toward cougars, and perceive an inequity between people who benefitted from cougars and people who were exposed to potential risks. Demographic variables such as location and tenure of residency, gender, and level of formal education gained by respondents did not significantly affect WSAC. Our study suggests that WSAC for cougars may be modified most effectively through communication and management actions that affect stakeholder attitudes and beliefs about cougars and their population levels and affect perceptions of risks to humans from cougars.

The present study examined the feasibility of experimentally manipulating perceptions of benefit and control via communications to increase public acceptance of bears. We assigned subjects to either a pseudo-control (basic bear biology message) or 1 of 3 treatments adding a benefits message, a perceived control message, or combining messages about both benefits and perceived control. Within-subjects pre—post t-tests showed a significant increase in acceptance among those in the benefits and combined treatments. A between-subjects 1-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) showed a significant difference between the perceived control and combined treatments (where the perceived control message actually decreased acceptance). Our results highlight the importance of including information about benefits stemming from the presence of black bears, as adding this information tended to increase stakeholder acceptance of black bear populations.

The reappearance and recovery of large carnivores in human-dominated landscapes creates a need to understand how people will respond to the presence of these animals. We tested a psychological model of acceptance to determine what variables most influence people's acceptance for black bears (Ursus americanus) in an area with an emerging black bear population (Ohio, USA). We hypothesized that people's perceptions of risk and benefit related to bears would mediate the effect of trust (in wildlife management agencies) and personal control (over interactions with and management of wildlife) on acceptance for black bears. We used a mail-back survey of Ohio residents (n = 9,400; adjusted response rate = 35%) to assess the variables of interest and test the hypothesized model. Based on multiple criteria of model fit, the hypothesized model fit the data acceptably well. The model explained approximately 62% of the variance in acceptance, and perception of risk associated with black bears had the largest impact on the level of acceptance. As large carnivore populations expand and interactions with humans increase, our results will aid managers in designing outreach materials and communications aimed at promoting acceptance for large carnivores. Our model suggests that interventions raising an individual's social trust in the managing agency, or personal control can indirectly raise stakeholders' acceptance by reducing risk perception and increasing perception of benefit from carnivores.