Journal Article

Immune Resistance in Glioblastoma: Understanding the Barriers to ICI and CAR-T Cell Therapy

Zukas, Alicia, Rivers, Charlotte, Vandergrift, William A., Rowland, Nathan C., Das, Arabinda, Alexander-Bryant, Angela, Boulos, Jessie, Eckert, Thomas, Patel, Sunil, Strickland, Ben, Zobaer, M. S., Baker, Tiffany G., Lindhorst, Scott M., Martinez, Jaime

2025

Overview

Background: Glioblastoma (GBM) is the most common primary malignant brain tumor, with fewer than 5% of patients surviving five years after diagnosis. The introduction of immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs), followed by chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) T-cell therapy, marked major advancements in oncology. Despite demonstrating efficacy in other blood and solid cancers, these therapies have yielded limited success in clinical trials for both newly diagnosed and recurrent GBM. A deeper understanding of GBM’s resistance to immunotherapy is essential for enhancing treatment responses and translating results seen in other cancer models. Objectives: In this review, we examine clinical trial outcomes involving ICIs and CAR-T for GBM patients and explore the evasive mechanisms of GBM and the tumor microenvironment. Findings and Discussion: Multiple clinical trials investigating ICIs in GBM have shown poor outcomes, with no significant improvement in progression-free survival (PFS) or overall survival (OS). Results from smaller case studies with CAR-T therapy have warranted further investigation. However, no large-scale trials or robust studies have yet established these immunotherapeutic approaches as definitive treatment strategies. Future research should shift focus from addressing the scarcity of functional T cells to exploiting the abundant myeloid-derived cells within the tumor microenvironment. Conclusions: Translating these therapies into effective treatments for glioblastoma in humans remains a significant challenge. The highly immunosuppressive nature of GBM and its tumor microenvironment continue to hinder the success of these innovative immunotherapeutic approaches. Targeting the myeloid-derived compartment may lead to more robust and sustained immune responses.

• Publisher: MDPI AG,MDPI
• Subject: Antigens / Blood-brain barrier / Brain cancer / Brain tumors / Cancer therapies / Cell death / Cell therapy / Chimeric antigen receptors / Clinical trials / Combination therapy / Cytotoxicity / Development and progression / FDA approval / Glioblastoma / Glioblastoma multiforme / Glioma / Immune checkpoint inhibitors / Immune response / Immune system / Immunosuppression / Immunosuppressive agents / Immunotherapy / Leukopenia / Lymphocytes / Lymphocytes T / Melanoma / Radiation therapy / Review / T cells / Tumor microenvironment / Vascular endothelial growth factor