Journal Article

Snake Venom Compounds: A New Frontier in the Battle Against Antibiotic-Resistant Infections

Hanafiah, Alfizah, Muttiah, Barathan

2025

Overview

The occurrence of antibiotic-resistant bacteria is a serious global health issue, and it emphasizes the need for novel antimicrobial agents. This review explores the potential of snake venom as another alternative strategy against antimicrobial resistance. Snake venoms are complex combinations of bioactive peptides and proteins, including metalloproteases (MPs), serine proteases (SPs), phospholipase A2 (PLA2) enzymes, three-finger toxins (3FTXs), cysteine-rich secretory proteins (CRISPs), L-amino acid oxidases (LAAOs), and antimicrobial peptides (AMPs). The antibacterial products possess wide-spectrum antibacterial activity against resistant microbes via diverse mechanisms such as cell membrane disruption, enzymatic hydrolysis of microbial structures, generation of oxidative stress, inhibition of biofilms, and immunomodulation. Strong antimicrobial activity is reported by most studies, but these are mostly restricted to in vitro testing with low translational use. Although preliminary insights into molecular targets and physiological effects exist, further studies are needed to clarify long-term safety and therapeutic potential. Special attention is given to snake venom-derived extracellular vesicles (SVEVs), which enhance the therapeutic potential of venom toxins by protecting them from degradation, improving bioavailability, and facilitating targeted delivery. Furthermore, innovative delivery strategies such as PEGylation, liposomes, hydrogels, microneedle patches, biopolymer films, and nanoparticles are discussed for their role in reducing systemic toxicity and enhancing antimicrobial efficacy. The rational modification of venom-derived peptides further expands their therapeutic utility by improving pharmacokinetics and minimizing off-target effects. Together, these approaches highlight the translational potential of snake venom-based therapies as next-generation antimicrobials in the fight against resistant infections. By outlining these challenges and directions, this review positions snake venom as an overlooked but fertile resource in the battle against antibiotic resistance.

• Publisher: MDPI AG,MDPI
• Subject: alternative therapies / Amino acids / Animals / Anti-Bacterial Agents - pharmacology / Anti-Bacterial Agents - therapeutic use / Antibacterial activity / antibacterial agent / Antibiotic resistance / Antibiotics / Antiinfectives and antibacterials / Antimicrobial activity / Antimicrobial agents / Antimicrobial peptides / Antimicrobial Peptides - pharmacology / Antimicrobial resistance / Bacteria / Bacterial infections / Bioavailability / Biocompatibility / Biofilms / Biopolymers / Cell membranes / Cysteine / Cytotoxicity / Drug resistance / Drug resistance in microorganisms / Drug Resistance, Bacterial - drug effects / Enzymes / Extracellular matrix / Global health / Gram-negative bacteria / Gram-positive bacteria / Health aspects / Humans / Hydrolysis / Immunomodulation / In vitro methods and tests / Methicillin / Microorganisms / Nanoparticles / Needles / Neurotoxicity / Oxidases / Oxidative stress / Pathogens / Peptides / Pharmacokinetics / Phospholipase A2 / Physiological effects / Proteases / Proteins / Public health / Review / Serine proteinase / Snack foods / snake venom / Snake Venoms - pharmacology / Snakes / Toxicity / Toxins / Translation / Venom / venom components / Venom toxins / Venomous snakes