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The employment of plant extracts for green production of bimetallic nanoparticles (BNPs) has gotten significant consideration because of its cheap, ecological, single–step, and easily scalable procedures. This methodology enables the manufacture of biocompatible nanoparticles (NPs) with improved activity. In this study, an environmentally friendly approach was utilized to biosynthesize manganese oxide–silver BNPs (MnO–Ag BNPs) using Cucumis melo ( C. melo ) peel extract (CPE), which served as the source of the required reducing and stabilizing materials. Several spectroscopic analytical methods, including ultraviolet–visible (UV–vis) spectroscopy, Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, energy–dispersive X–ray (EDX) spectroscopy, X–ray diffraction (XRD), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and transmission electron microscopy (TEM), were applied for careful confirmation and characterization of successful MnO–Ag BNPs assembly. This work introduces a novel green route employing CPE for MnO–Ag BNPs synthesis, providing distinct phytochemical efficiency and multifunctional bioactivity compared with previously reported plant–based systems. The biosynthesized MnO–Ag BNPs bacterial inhibitory capability as well as free radical scavenging effect were evaluated. Also, human kidney normal epithelial–derived cells (Vero cell line CCL–81) was employed for assessment of the cytotoxic outcome of MnO–Ag BNPs at various concentrations. Regarding the elemental composition, the manganese (Mn) and Ag contents were detected by the UV–vis, XRD, and EDX studies with consequent validation of MnO–Ag BNPs biosynthesis. The range of the assessed BNPs size was 2 to 10 nm with average diameter of 5.8 ± 1.7 nm and an average area of 22.7 nm 2 . Analysis based on EDX technique revealed the presence of Mn and Ag metals with 23.7–46.6% of the atomic percentages and 32.2–28.0% of the weight percentages, respectively. The biosynthesized NPs showed strong free radical scavenging, achieving 85–90% inhibition at higher concentrations. The cytotoxic activity findings indicated no significant harmful effects, at concentration range of 31.25–250 µg/mL, on Vero cell line. Additionally, the viability of the tested cell line infected with herpes simplex virus type–1 (HSV–1) significantly increased from 43% (untreated) to 78–99% when treated with 125 µg/mL MnO–Ag BNPs and acyclovir, respectively. Moreover, the inhibition rates achieved against the tested virus were 73% for MnO–Ag BNPs and 99% for acyclovir. These outcomes highlight the potential of MnO–Ag BNPs as promising candidates for biomedical and antiviral applications. Graphical abstract

Trimetallic nanoparticles (TMNPs) have emerged as a pivotal area of research due to their unique properties and diverse applications across medicine, agriculture, and environmental sciences. This review provides several novel contributions that distinguish it from existing literature on trimetallic nanoparticles (TMNPs). Firstly, it offers a focused exploration of TMNPs, specifically addressing their unique properties and applications, which have been less examined compared to other multimetallic nanoparticles. This targeted analysis fills a significant gap in current research. Secondly, the review emphasizes innovative biosynthesis methods utilizing microorganisms and plant extracts, positioning these green synthesis approaches as environmentally friendly alternatives to traditional chemical methods. This focus aligns with the increasing demand for sustainable practices in nanotechnology. Furthermore, the review integrates discussions on both medical and agricultural applications of TMNPs, highlighting their multifunctional potential across diverse fields. This comprehensive perspective enhances our understanding of how TMNPs can address various challenges. Additionally, the review explores the synergistic effects among the different metals in TMNPs, providing insights into how these interactions can be harnessed to optimize their properties for specific applications. Such discussions are often overlooked in existing studies. Moreover, this review identifies critical research gaps and challenges within the field, outlining future directions that encourage further investigation and innovation in TMNP development. By doing so, it proactively contributes to advancing the field. Finally, the review advocates for interdisciplinary collaboration among material scientists, biologists, and environmental scientists, emphasizing the importance of diverse expertise in enhancing the research and application of TMNPs.