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Lower limb prosthesis abandonment is a significant challenge, leading to reliance on walking aids, such as wheelchairs, which frequently do not match the patient’s needs and lead to increased morbidity. Prosthesis abandonment is driven by a lack of embodiment, the latter defined as the integration of a prosthetic device into one’s body schema. This review evaluates interventions enhancing embodiment through three dimensions: ownership, agency, and co-location. The aim of this narrative review is to ask what interventions are available to improve embodiment, and what dimensions of embodiment should be included in the standard of care for lower-limb amputation surgery and componentry development. This narrative is constructed through a thorough literature search on how the aforementioned dimensions of embodiment can be optimized. In the studies reviewed, standardization of embodiment metrics and longitudinal data are lacking, hindering clinical translation. Future work must prioritize patient-centered design, integrate multidimensional assessments, and address practical issues to expand eligibility for advanced interventions.

ABSTRACT BACKGROUND Distal junctional kyphosis (DJK) development after cervical deformity (CD)-corrective surgery is a growing concern for surgeons and patients. Few studies have investigated risk factors that predict the occurrence of DJK. OBJECTIVE To predict DJK development after CD surgery using predictive modeling. METHODS CD criteria was at least one of the following: C2-C7 Coronal/Cobb > 10°, C2-7 sagittal vertical axis (cSVA) > 4 cm, chin-brow vertical angle > 25°. DJK was defined as the development of an angle <−10° from the end of fusion construct to the second distal vertebra, and change in this angle by <−10° from baseline to postoperative. Baseline demographic, clinical, and surgical information were used to predict the occurrence of DJK using generalized linear modeling both as one overall model and as submodels using baseline demographic and clinical predictors or surgical predictors. RESULTS One hundred seventeen CD patients were included. At any postoperative visit up to 1 yr, 23.1% of CD patients developed DJK. DJK was predicted with high accuracy using a combination of baseline demographic, clinical, and surgical factors by the following factors: preoperative neurological deficit, use of transition rod, C2-C7 lordosis (CL)<−12°, T1 slope minus CL > 31°, and cSVA > 54 mm. In the model using only baseline demographic/clinical predictors of DJK, presence of comorbidities, presence of baseline neurological deficit, and high preoperative C2-T3 angle were included in the final model (area under the curve = 87%). The final model using only surgical predictors for DJK included combined approach, posterior upper instrumented vertebrae below C4, use of transition rod, lack of anterior corpectomy, more than 3 posterior osteotomies, and performance of a 3-column osteotomy. CONCLUSION Preoperative assessment and consideration should be given to these factors that are predictive of DJK to mitigate poor outcomes.

Background: Chiari malformation (CM) is a cluster of related developmental anomalies of the posterior fossa ranging from asymptomatic to fatal. Cranial and spinal decompression can help alleviate symptoms of increased cerebrospinal fluid pressure and correct spinal deformity. As surgical intervention for CM increases in frequency, understanding predictors of reoperation may help optimize neurosurgical planning. Materials and Methods: This was a retrospective analysis of the prospectively collected Healthcare Cost and Utilization Project's California State Inpatient Database years 2004-2011. Chiari malformation Types 1-4 (queried with ICD-9 CM codes) with associated spinal pathologies undergoing stand-alone spinal decompression (queried with ICD-9 CM procedure codes) were included. Cranial decompressions were excluded. Results: One thousand four hundred and forty-six patients (29.28 years, 55.6% of females) were included. Fifty-eight patients (4.01%) required reoperation (67 reoperations). Patients aged 40-50 years had the most reoperations (11); however, patients aged 15-20 years had a significantly higher reoperation rate than all other groups (15.5% vs. 8.2%, P = 0.048). Female gender was significantly associated with reoperation (67.2% vs. 55.6%, P = 0.006). Medical comorbidities associated with reoperation included chronic lung disease (19% vs. 6.9%, P < 0.001), iron deficiency anemia (10.3% vs. 4.1%, P = 0.024), and renal failure (3.4% vs. 0.9%, P = 0.05). Associated significant cluster anomalies included spina bifida (48.3% vs. 34.8%, P = 0.035), tethered cord syndrome (6.9% vs. 2.1%, P = 0.015), syringomyelia (12.1% vs. 5.9%, P = 0.054), hydrocephalus (37.9% vs. 17.7%, P < 0.001), scoliosis (13.8% vs. 6.4%, P = 0.028), and ventricular septal defect (6.9% vs. 2.3%, P = 0.026). Conclusions: Multiple medical and CM-specific comorbidities were associated with reoperation. Addressing them, where possible, may aid in improving CM surgery outcomes.

Purpose: The aim is to investigate the relationship between cervical parameters and the modified Japanese Orthopedic Association scale (mJOA). Materials and Methods: Surgical adult cervical deformity (CD) patients were included in this retrospective analysis. After determining data followed a parametric distribution through the Shapiro-Wilk Normality (P = 0.15, P > 0.05), Pearson correlations were run for radiographic parameters and mJOA. For significant correlations, logistic regressions were performed to determine a threshold of radiographic measures for which the correlation with mJOA scores was most significant. mJOA score of 14 and <12 reported cut-off values for moderate (M) and severe (S) disability. New modifiers were compared to an existing classification using Spearman's rho and logistic regression analyses to predict outcomes up to 2 years. Results: A total of 123 CD patients were included (60.5 years, 65%F, 29.1 kg/m2). For significant baseline factors from Pearson correlations, the following thresholds were predicted: MGS (M:-12 to-9° and 0°-19°, P = 0.020; S: >19° and <−12°, χ2 = 4.291, P = 0.036), TS-CL (M: 26°to 45°, P = 0.201; S: >45°, χ2 = 7.8, P = 0.005), CL (M:-21° to 3°, χ2 = 8.947, P = 0.004; S: <−21°, χ2 = 9.3, P = 0.009), C2-T3 (M: −35° to −25°, χ2 = 5.485, P = 0.046; S: <−35°, χ2 = 4.1, P = 0.041), C2 Slope (M: 33° to 49°, P = 0.122; S: >49°, χ2 = 5.7, P = 0.008), and Frailty (Mild: 0.18-0.27, P = 0.129; Severe: >0.27, P = 0.002). Compared to existing Ames- International Spine Study Group classification, the novel thresholds demonstrated significant predictive value for reoperation and mortality up to 2 years. Conclusions: Collectively, these radiographic values can be utilized in refining existing classifications and developing collective understanding of severity and surgical targets in corrective surgery for adult CD.

Background: The lower instrumented vertebrae (LIVs) in cervical deformity (CD) constructs may have varying effects on patient outcomes that are still poorly understood. Objective: The objective of the study is to compare outcomes in CD patients undergoing instrumented correction according to the relation of LIV with primary driver (PD). Methods: Patients who met radiographic criteria for CD were included in the study. Patients were stratified by PD of deformity: cervical (C) through AMES classification (TS-CL >20 or cervical sagittal vertical axis >40) and thoracic (T) through hyper/hypokyphosis (TK) from T4-T12 (60 < TK < 40). Patients were further stratified by LIV in relation to curve apex (above/below). Univariate and multivariate analyses identified group differences in postoperative health-related quality-of-life and distal junctional kyphosis (DJK) (>10° LIV and LIV + 2) rate up to 1 year. Results: Sixty-two patients were analyzed. Twenty-one patients had a C-PD and 41 had a T-PD by definition. 100% of C-PDs had LIVs below CL apex, while 9.2% of T-PDs had LIVs below (caudal) to TK apex and 90.8% had LIVs above TK apex. By 1 year, C patients trended lower Neck Disability Index (NDI) (21.9 vs. 29.0, P = 0.245), lower numeric rating scales neck pain (4.2 vs. 5.1, P = 0.358), and significantly higher EuroQol five-dimensional questionnaire Visual Analog Scale (69.2 vs. 52.4, P = 0.040). When T patients with LIVs below TK apex were excluded, remaining T patients with LIV above apex had significantly higher 1-year NDI than C patients (37.5 vs. 21.9, P = .05). T patients also trended higher rates of postoperative DJK than C (19.5% vs. 4.8%, P = 0.119). Conclusions: Stopping before apex was more common in patients with a primary thoracic driver (T) and associated with deleterious effects. Primary cervical driver (C) tended to have LIVs inclusive of CL apex with lower rates of DJK.

Background: Recent studies have evaluated the correlation of health-related quality of life (HRQL) scores with radiographic parameters. This relationship may provide insight into the connection of patient-reported disability and disease burden caused by cervical diagnoses. Purpose: To evaluate the association between spinopelvic sagittal parameters and HRQLs in patients with primary cervical diagnoses. Methods: Patients ≥18 years meeting criteria for primary cervical diagnoses. Cervical radiographic parameters assessed cervical sagittal vertical axis, TS-CL, chin-to-brow vertical angle, C2-T3, CL, C2 Slope, McGregor's slope. Global radiographic alignment parameters assessed PT, SVA, PI-LL, T1 Slope. Pearson correlations were run for all combinations at baseline (BL) and 1 year (1Y) for continuous BL and 1Y modified Japanese Orthopaedic Association scale (mJOA) scores, as well as decline or improvement in those HRQLs at 1Y. Multiple linear regression models were constructed to investigate BL and 1Y alignment parameters as independent variables. Results: Ninety patients included 55.6 ± 9.6 years, 52% female, 30.7 ± 7kg/m2. By approach, 14.3% of patients underwent procedures by anterior approach, 56% posterior, and 30% had combined approaches. Average anterior levels fused: 3.6, posterior: 4.8, and mean total number of levels fused: 4.5. Mean operative time for the cohort was 902.5 minutes with an average estimated blood loss of 830 ccs. The mean BL neck disability index (NDI) score was 56.5 and a mJOA of 12.81. While BL NDI score correlated with gender (P = 0.050), it did not correlate with BL global or cervical radiographic factors. An increased NDI score at 1Y postoperatively correlated with BL body mass index (P = 0.026). A decreased NDI score was associated with 1Y T12-S1 angle (P = 0.009) and 1Y T10 L2 angle (P = 0.013). Overall, BL mJOA score correlated with the BL radiographic factors of T1 slope (P = 0.005), cervical lordosis (P = 0.001), C2-T3 (P = 0.008), C2 sacral slope (P = 0.050), SVA (P = 0.010), and CL Apex (P = 0.043), as well as gender (P = 0.050). Linear regression modeling for the prior independent variables found a significance of P = 0.046 and an R2 of 0.367. Year 1 mJOA scores correlated with 1Y values for maximum kyphosis (P = 0.043) and TS-CL (P = 0.010). At 1Y, a smaller mJOA score correlated with BL S1 sacral slope (P = 0.014), pelvic incidence (P = 0.009), L1-S1 (P = 0.012), T12-S1 (P = 0.008). The linear regression model for those 4 variables demonstrated an R2 of 0.169 and a P = 0.005. An increased mJOA score correlated with PI-LL difference at 1Y (P = 0.012), L1-S1 difference (P = 0.036), T12-S1 difference (0.006), maximum lordosis (P = 0.026), T9-PA difference (P = 0.010), and difference of T4-PA (P = 0.008). Conclusions: While the impact of preoperative sagittal and cervical parameters on mJOA was strong, the BL radiographic factors did not impact NDI scores. PostOp HRQL was significantly associated with sagittal parameters for mJOA (both worsening and improvement) and NDI scores (improvement). When cervical surgery has been indicated, radiographic alignment is important for postoperative HRQL.

Background: Age-adjusted alignment targets in the context of distal junctional kyphosis (DJK) development have yet to be investigated. Our aim was to assess age-adjusted alignment targets, reciprocal changes, and role of lowest instrumented level orientation in DJK development in cervical deformity (CD) patients. Methods: CD patients were evaluated based on lowest fused level: cervical (C7 or above), upper thoracic (UT: T1-T6), and lower thoracic (LT: T7-T12). Age-adjusted alignment targets were calculated using published formulas for sagittal vertical axis (SVA), pelvic incidence-lumbar lordosis (PI-LL), pelvic tilt (PT), T1 pelvic angle (TPA), and LL-thoracic kyphosis (TK). Outcome measures were cervical and global alignment parameters: Cervical SVA (cSVA), cervical lordosis, C2 slope, C2-T3 angle, C2-T3 SVA, TS-CL, PI-LL, PT, and SVA. Subanalysis matched baseline PI to assess age-adjusted alignment between DJK and non-DJK. Results: Seventy-six CD patients included. By 1Y, 20 patients developed DJK. Non-DJK patients had 27% cervical lowest instrumented vertebra (LIV), 68% UT, and 5% LT. DJK patients had 25% cervical, 50% UT, and 25% LT. There were no baseline or 1Y differences for PI, PI-LL, SVA, TPA, or PT for actual and age-adjusted targets. DJK patients had worse baseline cSVA and more severe 1Y cSVA, C2-T3 SVA, and C2 slope (P < 0.05). The distribution of over/under corrected patients and the offset between actual and ideal alignment for SVA, PT, TPA, PI-LL, and LL-TK were similar between DJK and non-DJK patients. DJK patients requiring reoperation had worse postoperative changes in all cervical parameters and trended toward larger offsets for global parameters. Conclusion: CD patients with severe baseline malalignment went on to develop postoperative DJK. Age-adjusted alignment targets did not capture differences in these populations, suggesting the need for cervical-specific goals.

Background: Patients with symptomatic cervical deformity (CD) requiring surgical correction often present with hyperkyphosis (HK), although patients with hyperlordotic curves may require surgery as well. Few studies have investigated differences in CD corrective surgery with regard to HK and hyperlordosis (HL). Objective: The objective of the study is to evaluate patterns in treatment for CD patients with baseline (BL) HK and HL and understand how extreme curvature of the spine may influence surgical outcomes. Materials and Methods: Operative CD patients with BL and 1-year (1Y) radiographic data were included in the study. Patients were stratified based on BL C2-C7 lordosis (CL) angle: those >1 standard deviation (SD) from the mean (−6.96 ± 21.47°) were hyperlordotic (>14.51°) or hyperkyphotic (<−28.43°) depending on directionality. Patients within 1SD were considered control group. Results: 102 surgical CD patients (61 years, 65% F, 30 kg/m2) with BL and 1Y radiographic data were included. 20 patients met definitions for HK and 21 patients met definitions for HL. No differences in demographics or disability were noted. HK had higher estimated blood loss (EBL) with anterior approaches than HL but similar EBL with posterior approach. Operative time did not differ between groups. Control, HL, and HK groups differed in BL TS-CL (36.6° vs. 22.5° vs. 60.7°, P < 0.001) and BL-SVA (10.8 vs. 7.0 vs. −47.8 mm, P = 0.001). HL patients had less discectomies, less corpectomies, and similar osteotomy rates to HK. HL had 3x revisions of HK and controls (28.6 vs. 10.0 vs. 9.2%, respectively, P = 0.046). At 1Y, HL patients had higher cSVA and trended higher SVA and SS than HK. In terms of BL-upper cervical alignment, HK patients had higher McGregor's slope (MGS) (16.1° vs. 3.3°, P = 0.002) and C0-C2 Cobb (43.3° vs. 26.9°, P < 0.001), however, postoperative differences in MGS and C0-C2 were not significant. HK drivers of deformity were primarily C (90%), whereas HL had primary CT (38.1%), UT (23.8%), and C (14.3%) drivers. Conclusions: Hyperlodotic patients trended higher revision rates with greater radiographic malalignment at 1-year postoperative, perhaps due to undercorrection compared to kyphotic etiologies.

Introduction: The aim of this study was to evaluate the association of available cervical alignment components through the Ames cervical deformity (CD) classification parameters with the Patient-Reported Outcomes Measurement Information System (PROMIS) physical health domain metrics. Methods: Surgical CD patients (C2-C7 Cobb >10° or C2-C7 sagittal vertical axis [cSVA] >4 cm or T1 slope minus cervical lordosis (TS-CL) >15°) ≥18 years with available baseline (BL) radiographic and PROMIS were isolated in a single-center spine database. Patients were classified according to the Ames CD modifiers for cSVA and TS-CL (low deformity [Low], moderate deformity [Mod], and severe deformity [Sev]). Descriptives and univariate analyses compared population-weighted PROMIS scores for Pain Intensity (PI), Physical Function (PF), and Pain Interference (Int) across CD modifiers. Conditional tree analysis with logistic regression sampling determined the threshold of PROMIS scores for which the correlation with Ames radiographic cutoffs was most significant. Reported cutoff values for Mod (cSVA: 4-8 cm; TS-CL: 15-20°) and Sev (cSVA: >8 cm; TS-CL: >20°) disabilities were used. Results: Two hundred and eight patients (58.8 years, female: 51%, 29.6 kg/m2, Charlson Comorbidity Index: 1.19). BL cSVA modifier by severity: 83.2% Low, 16.8% Mod. No patients met criteria for severe cSVA. BL TS-CL modifier by severity: 18.8% Low, 22.1% Mod, 59.1% Sev. Mean baseline PROMIS scores were as follows: PI score: 89.6 ± 15.4, PF score: 11.9 ± 13.1, Int score: 56.9 ± 6.8. PI did not differ between cSVA and TS-CL severity. Mod cSVA patients and Mod/Sev TS-CL modifier groups trended toward lower PF scores and higher Int scores. A PI score of >96 (odds ratio [OR]: 0.658 [0.303-1.430]), a PF score of <14 (OR: 1.864 [0.767-4.531]), and an Int score of > 57.4 (OR: 1.878 [0.889-3.967]) were predictors of Mod cSVA. A PI score of >87 (OR: 1.428 [0.767-2.659]), a PF score of <14 (OR: 1.551 [0.851-2.827]), and an Int score of >56.5 (OR: 1.689 [0.967-2.949]) were predictors of Sev TS-CL. Conclusions: PROMIS physical health domains were related to the Ames CD classification. Certain BL PROMIS thresholds can be connected to the severity of CD.

Objective: The objective of the study is to investigate which neurologic complications affect clinical outcomes the most following cervical deformity (CD) surgery. Methods: CD patients (C2-C7 Cobb >10°, CL >10°, cSVA >4 cm or chin-brow vertical angle >25°) >18 years with follow-up surgical and health-related quality of life (HRQL) data were included. Descriptive analyses assessed demographics. Neurologic complications assessed were C5 motor deficit, central neurodeficit, nerve root motor deficits, nerve sensory deficits, radiculopathy, and spinal cord deficits. Neurologic complications were classified as major or minor, then: intraoperative, before discharge, before 30 days, before 90 days, and after 90 days. HRQL outcomes were assessed at 3 months, 6 months, and 1 year. Integrated health state (IHS) for the neck disability index (NDI), EQ5D, and modified Japanese Orthopaedic Association (mJOA) were assessed using all follow-up time points. A subanalysis assessed IHS outcomes for patients with 2Y follow-up. Results: 153 operative CD patients were included. Baseline characteristics: 61 years old, 63% female, body mass index 29.7, operative time 531.6 ± 275.5, estimated blood loss 924.2 ± 729.5, 49% posterior approach, 18% anterior approach, 33% combined. 18% of patients experienced a total of 28 neurologic complications in the postoperative period (15 major). There were 7 radiculopathy, 6 motor deficits, 6 sensory deficits, 5 C5 motor deficits, 2 central neurodeficits, and 2 spinal cord deficits. 11.2% of patients experienced neurologic complications before 30 days (7 major) and 15% before 90 days (12 major). 12% of neurocomplication patients went on to have revision surgery within 6 months and 18% within 2 years. Neurologic complication patients had worse mJOA IHS scores at 1Y but no significant differences between NDI and EQ5D (0.003 vs. 0.873, 0.458). When assessing individual complications, central neurologic deficits and spinal cord deficit patients had the worst outcomes at 1Y (2.6 and 1.8 times worse NDI scores, P = 0.04, no improvement in EQ5D, 8% decrease in EQ5D). Patients with sensory deficits had the best NDI and EQ5D outcomes at 1Y (31% decrease in NDI, 8% increase in EQ5D). In a subanalysis, neurologic patients trended toward worse NDI and mJOA IHS outcomes (P = 0.263, 0.163). Conclusions: 18% of patients undergoing CD surgery experienced a neurologic complication, with 15% within 3 months. Patients who experienced any neurologic complication had worse mJOA recovery kinetics by 1 year and trended toward worse recovery at 2 years. Of the neurologic complications, central neurologic deficits and spinal cord deficits were the most detrimental.