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Plant root growth is affected by both gravity and mechanical stimulation (Massa GD, Gilroy S [2003] Plant J 33: 435-445). A coordinated response to both stimuli requires specific and common elements. To delineate the transcriptional response mechanisms, we carried out whole-genome microarray analysis of Arabidopsis root apices after gravity stimulation (reorientation) and mechanical stimulation and monitored transcript levels of 22,744 genes in a time course during the first hour after either stimulus. Rapid, transient changes in the relative abundance of specific transcripts occurred in response to gravity or mechanical stimulation, and these transcript level changes reveal clusters of coordinated events. Transcriptional regulation occurs in the root apices within less than 2 min after either stimulus. We identified genes responding specifically to each stimulus as well as transcripts regulated in both signal transduction pathways. Several unknown genes were specifically induced only during gravitropic stimulation (gravity induced genes). We also analyzed the network of transcriptional regulation during the early stages of gravitropism and mechanical stimulation.

Calreticulin (CRT) is a multifunctional protein mainly localized to the endoplasmic reticulum in eukaryotic cells. Here, we present the first analysis, to our knowledge, of evolutionary diversity and expression profiling among different plant CRT isoforms. Phylogenetic studies and expression analysis show that higher plants contain two distinct groups of CRTs: a CRT1/CRT2 group and a CRT3 group. To corroborate the existence of these isoform groups, we cloned a putative CRT3 ortholog from Brassica rapa. The CRT3 gene appears to be most closely related to the ancestral CRT gene in higher plants. Distinct tissue-dependent expression patterns and stress-related regulation were observed for the isoform groups. Furthermore, analysis of posttranslational modifications revealed differences in the glycosylation status among members within the CRT1/CRT2 isoform group. Based on evolutionary relationship, a new nomenclature for plant CRTs is suggested. The presence of two distinct CRT isoform groups, with distinct expression patterns and posttranslational modifications, supports functional specificity among plant CRTs and could account for the multiple functional roles assigned to CRTs.

The inositol phospholipids, phosphatidylinositol monophosphate (PIP) and phosphatidylinositol bisphosphate (PIP2), have been shown to increase the vanadate-sensitive ATPase activity of plant plasma membranes (AR Memon, Q Chen, WF Boss [1989] Biochem Biophys Res Commun 162: 1295-1301). In this paper, we show the effect of various concentrations of phosphatidyinositol, PIP, and PIP2 on the plasma membrane vanadate-sensitive ATPase activity. PIP and PIP2 at concentrations of 10 nanomoles per 30 microgram membrane protein per milliliter of reaction mixture caused a twofold and 1.8-fold increase in the ATPase activity, respectively. The effect of these negatively charged phospholipids on the ATPase activity was inhibited by adding the positively charged aminoglycoside, neomycin. Neomycin did not affect the endogenous plasma membrane ATPase activity in the absence of exogenous lipids

Here, we compare the regulation and localization of the Arabidopsis type III phosphatidylinositol (PtdIns) 4-kinases, AtPI4Kα1 and AtPI4Kβ1, in Spodoptera frugiperda (Sf9) insect cells. We also explore the role of the pleckstrin homology (PH) domain in regulating AtPI4Kα1. Recombinant kinase activity was found to be differentially sensitive to PtdIns-4-phosphate (PtdIns4P), the product of the reaction. The specific activity of AtPI4Kα1 was inhibited 70% by 0.5 mM PtdIns4P. The effect of PtdIns4P was not simply due to charge because AtPI4Kα1 activity was stimulated approximately 50% by equal concentrations of the other negatively charged lipids, PtdIns3P, phosphatidic acid, and phosphatidyl-serine. Furthermore, inhibition of AtPI4Kα1 by PtdIns4P could be alleviated by adding recombinant AtPI4Kα1 PH domain, which selectively binds to PtdIns4P (Stevenson et al., 1998). In contrast, the specific activity of AtPI4Kβ1, which does not have a PH domain, was stimulated 2-fold by PtdIns4P but not other negatively charged lipids. Visualization of green fluorescent protein fusion proteins in insect cells revealed that AtPI4Kα1 was associated primarily with membranes in the perinuclear region, whereas AtPI4Kβ1 was in the cytosol and associated with small vesicles throughout the cytoplasm. Expression of AtPI4Kα1 without the PH domain in the insect cells compromised PtdIns 4-kinase activity and caused mislocalization of the kinase. The green fluorescent protein-PH domain alone was associated with intracellular membranes and the plasma membrane. In vitro, the PH domain appeared to be necessary for association of AtPI4Kα1 with fine actin filaments. These studies support the idea that the Arabidopsis type III PtdIns 4-kinases are responsible for distinct phosphoinositide pools.

Defining the reactants is a critical step towards elucidating the mechanism of ozone toxicity to biomembranes. To document ozone-induced HO· radicals, the spin trap 5,5-dimethyl-1-pyrroline-N-oxide was used and the resulting spin adduct was monitored with electron spin resonance spectroscopy. Chelexed potassium phosphate buffer (10 millimolar and 0.2 molar) at pH 7.2 and 7.8 was exposed to ozone (1-40 microliters per liter) by directing a stream of ozone over the surface for 60 seconds. Under these conditions, no HO· was detected. Using 0.5 × 10-4 molar caffeic acid in phosphate buffer, strong DMPO·OH electron spin resonance signals were obtained, indicating HO· production. Air controls yielded no signal. High pH (7.8) enhanced signal strength. Furthermore, with sorbitol (0.4 osmolal final concentration), a net HO· signal loss of 28% was observed, while a carbon-centered sorbitol radical adduct appeared. Although HO· radicals were produced, no breakage of Daucus carota protoplast plasma membranes was observed nor were differences in membrane fluidity observed as determined by 5-doxyl stearic acid.

Fusogenic carrot cells grown in suspension culture were labeled 12 hours with myo-[2-3H]inositol. Plasma membranes were isolated from the prelabeled fusogenic carrot cells by both aqueous polymer two-phase partitioning and Renografin density gradients. With both methods, the plasma membrane-enriched fractions, as identified by marker enzymes, were enriched in [3H]inositol-labeled phosphatidylinositol monophosphate (PIP) and phosphatidylinositol bisphosphate (PIP2). An additional [3H]inositol-labeled lipid, lysophosphatidylinositol monophosphate, which migrated between PIP and PIP2 on thin layer plates, was found primarily in the plasma membrane-rich fraction of the fusogenic cells. This was in contrast to lysophosphatidylinositol which is found primarily in the lower phase, microsomal/mitochrondrial-rich fraction.

The metabolism of exogenously added D-myo-[1-3H]inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate (IP3) has been examined in microsomal membrane and soluble fractions of carrot (Daucus carota L.) cells grown in suspension culture. When [3H]IP3 was added to a microsomal membrane fraction, [3H]IP2 was the primary metabolite consisting of approximately 83% of the total recovered [3H] by paper electrophoresis. [3H]IP was only 6% of the [3H] recovered, and 10% of the [3H]IP3 was not further metabolized. In contrast, when [3H]IP3 was added to the soluble fraction, approximately equal amounts of [3H]IP2 and [3H]IP were recovered. Ca2+ (100 micromolar) tended to enhance IP3 dephosphorylation but inhibited the IP2 dephosphorylation in the soluble fraction by about 20%. MoO4(2)- (1 millimolar) inhibited the dephosphorylation of IP3 by the microsomal fraction and the dephosphorylation of IP2 by the soluble fraction. MoO4(2)-, however, did not inhibit the dephosphorylation of IP3 by the soluble fraction. Li+ (10 and 50 millimolar) had no effect on IP3 metabolism in either the soluble or membrane fraction; however, Li+ (50 millimolar) inhibited IP2 dephosphorylation in the soluble fraction about 25%

We have shown previously that inositol-1,4,5-trisphosphate (IP3) stimulates an efflux of ^{45}\\text{Ca}^{2+}$ from fusogenic carrot protoplasts (M Rincón, WF Boss [1987] Plant Physiol 83: 395-398). In light of these results, we suggested that IP3 might serve as a second messenger for the mobilization of intracellular Ca2+ in higher plant cells. To determine whether or not IP3 and other inositol phosphates were present in the carrot cells, the cells were labeled with myo-[2-3H]inositol for 18 hours and extracted with ice-cold 10% trichloroacetic acid. The inositol metabolites were separated by anion exchange chromatography and by paper electrophoresis. We found that [3H]inositol metabolites coeluted with inositol bisphosphate (IP2) and IP3 when separated by anion exchange chromatography. However, we could not detect IP2 or IP3 when the inositol metabolites were analyzed by paper electrophoresis even though the polyphosphoinositides, which are the source of IP2 and IP3, were present in these cells. Thus, [3H] inositol metabolites other than IP2 and IP3 had coeluted on the anion exchange columns. The data indicate that either IP3 is rapidly metabolized or that it is not present at a detectable level in the carrot cells.

The relationship of Ca2+ and plasmodesmatal closure was examined in staminal hairs of Setcreasea purpurea by microinjecting cells with active mastoparan (Mas-7), inactive mastoparan (Mas-17), active inositol-1,4,5-trisphosphate (IP3), or inactive IP3. Calcium green dextran 10,000 was used to study cellular free Ca2+, and carboxyfluorescein was used to monitor plasmodesmatal closure. When Mas-7 was microinjected into the cytoplasm of cell 1 (the tip cell of a chain of cells), a rapid increase in calcium green dextran-10,000 fluorescence was observed in the cytoplasmic areas on both sides of the plasmodesmata connecting cells 1 and 2 during the same time that the diffusion of carboxyfluorescein through them was blocked. The inhibition of cell-to-cell diffusion was transient, and the closed plasmodesmata reopened within 30 s. The elevated Ca2+ level near plasmodesmata was also transient and returned to base level in about 1.5 min. The transient increase in Ca2+, once initiated in cell 1, repeated with an oscillatory period of 3 min. Elevated Ca2+ and oscillations of Ca2+ were also observed near interconnecting cell walls throughout the chain of cells, indicating that the signal had been transmitted. Previously, we reported that IP3 closed plasmodesmata; now we report that it stimulated Ca2+ and oscillations similar to Mas-7. The effect was specific for similar concentrations of Mas-7 over Mas-17 and active IP3 over inactive IP3. It is important that the Ca2+ channel blocker La3+ eliminated the responses from Mas-7 and IP3, indicating that an influx of Ca2+ was required. These results support the contention that plasmodesmata functioning is regulated via Ca2+ and that IP3 may be an intermediary between the stimulus and Ca2+ elevations.

Plasma membrane vesicles from wild carrot cells grown in suspension culture were isolated by aqueous two-phase partitioning, and ATP-dependent phosphorylation was measured with [γ32P]ATP in the presence and absence of calcium. Treatment of the carrot cells with the cell wall digestion enzymes, driselase, in a sorbitol osmoticum for 1.5 min altered the protein phosphorylation pattern compared to that of cells treated with sorbitol alone. Driselase treatment resulted in decreased phosphorylation of a band of Mr 80,000 which showed almost complete calcium dependence in the osmoticum treated cells; decreased phosphorylation of a band of Mr 15,000 which showed little calcium activation, and appearance of a new band of calcium-dependent phosphorylation at Mr 22,000. These effects appeared not to be due to nonspecific protease activity and neither in vivo nor in vitro exposure to driselase caused a significant loss of Coomassie blue-staining bands on the gels of the isolated plasma membranes. However, protein phosphorylation was decreased. Adding driselase to the in vitro reaction mixture caused a general decrease in the membrane protein phosphorylation either in the presence or absence of calcium which did not mimic the in vivo response. Cells labeled in vivo with inorganic 32P also showed a response to the Driselase treatment. An enzymically active driselase preparation was required for the observed responses.