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Macrophages, important cells of innate immunity, are known for their phagocytic activity, capability for antigen presentation, and flexible phenotypes. Macrophages are found in all tissues and therefore represent an attractive therapeutic target for the treatment of diseases of various etiology. Genetic programming of macrophages is an important issue of modern molecular and cellular medicine. The controllable activation of macrophages towards desirable phenotypes in vivo and in vitro will provide effective treatments for a number of inflammatory and proliferative diseases. This review is focused on the methods for specific alteration of gene expression in macrophages, including the controllable promotion of the desired M1 (pro-inflammatory) or M2 (anti-inflammatory) phenotypes in certain pathologies or model systems. Here we review the strategies of target selection, the methods of vector delivery, and the gene editing approaches used for modification of macrophages.

Liver diseases are one of the main causes of mortality. In this regard, the development of new ways of reparative processes stimulation is relevant. Macrophages play a leading role in the regulation of liver homeostasis in physiological conditions and in pathology. In this regard, the development of new liver treatment methods is impossible without taking into account this cell population. Resident macrophages of the liver, Kupffer cells, represent a unique cell population, first of all, due to their development. Most of the liver macrophages belong to the self-sustaining macrophage cell population, whose origin is not bone marrow. In addition, Kupffer cells are involved in such processes as regulation of hepatocyte proliferation and apoptosis, remodeling of the intercellular matrix, lipid metabolism, protective function, etc. Such a broad spectrum of liver macrophage functions indicates their high functional plasticity. The review summarizes recent data on the development, phenotypic and functional plasticity, and participation in the reparative processes of liver macrophages: resident macrophages (Kupffer cells) and bone marrow-derived macrophages.

Functional and anatomical connection between the liver and the spleen is most clearly manifested in various pathological conditions of the liver (cirrhosis, hepatitis). The mechanisms of the interaction between the two organs are still poorly understood, as there have been practically no studies on the influence exerted by the spleen on the normal liver. Mature male Sprague-Dawley rats of 250-260 g body weight, 3 months old, were splenectomized. The highest numbers of Ki67+ hepatocytes in the liver of splenectomized rats were observed at 24 h after the surgery, simultaneously with the highest index of Ki67-positive hepatocytes. After surgical removal of the spleen, expression of certain genes in the liver tissues increased. A number of genes were upregulated in the liver at a single time point of 24 h, including Ccne1, Egf, Tnfa, Il6, Hgf, Met, Tgfb1r2 and Nos2. The expression of Ccnd1, Tgfb1, Tgfb1r1 and Il10 in the liver was upregulated over the course of 3 days after splenectomy. Monitoring of the liver macrophage populations in splenectomized animals revealed a statistically significant increase in the proportion of CD68-positive cells in the liver (as compared with sham-operated controls) detectable at 24 h and 48 h after the surgery. The difference in the liver content of CD68-positive cells between splenectomized and sham-operated animals evened out by day 3 after the surgery. No alterations in the liver content of CD163-positive cells were observed in the experiments. A decrease in the proportion of CD206-positive liver macrophages was observed at 48 h after splenectomy. The splenectomy-induced hepatocyte proliferation is described by us for the first time. Mechanistically, the effect is apparently induced by the removal of spleen as a major source of Tgfb1 (hepatocyte growth inhibitor) and subsequently supported by activation of proliferation factor-encoding genes in the liver.

Stem cell-based therapeutic approaches for neurological disorders are widely studied. Paracrine factors secreted by stem cells in vitro and delivered intranasally might allow bypassing the disadvantages associated with a surgical cell delivery procedure with likely immune rejection of a transplant. In this study, we investigated the therapeutic effect of the extracellular vesicles secreted by glial progenitor cells (GPC-EV) derived from human induced pluripotent stem cell in a traumatic brain injury model. Intranasal administration of GPC-EV to Wistar rats for 6 days improved sensorimotor functions assessed over a 14-day observation period. Beside, deep sequencing of microRNA transcriptome of GPC-EV was estimate, and was revealed 203 microRNA species that might be implicated in prevention of various brain pathologies. Modulation of microRNA pools might contribute to the observed decrease in the number of astrocytes that inhibit neurorecovery processes while enhancing neuroplasticity by decreasing phosphorylated Tau forms, preventing inflammation and apoptosis associated with secondary damage to brain tissue. The course of GPC-EV administration was promoted the increasing protein levels of NF-κB in studied areas of the rat brain, indicating NF-κB dependent mechanisms as a plausible route of neuroprotection within the damaged area. This investigation showed that GPC-EV may be representing a therapeutic approach in traumatic brain injury, though its translation into the clinic would require an additional research and development.

The development of liver fibrosis is one of the most severe and life-threatening outcomes of chronic liver disease (CLD). For targeted therapy of CLD, it is highly needed to reveal molecular targets for normalizing metabolic processes impaired in damaged liver and associated with fibrosis. In this study, we investigated the morphological and biochemical changes in rat liver models of fibrosis induced by chronic administration of thioacetamide, carbon tetrachloride, bile duct ligation (BDL), and ischemia/reperfusion (I/R), with a specific focus on carbohydrate and energy metabolism. Changes in the levels of substrates and products, as well as enzyme activities of the major glucose metabolic pathways (glycolysis, glucuronidation, and pentose phosphate pathway) were examined in rat liver tissue after injury. We examined key markers of oxidative energy metabolism, such as the activity of the Krebs cycle enzymes, and assessed mitochondrial respiratory activity. In addition, pro- and anti-oxidative status was assessed in fibrotic liver tissue. We found that 6 weeks of exposure to thioacetamide, carbon tetrachloride, BDL or I/R resulted in a decrease in the activity of glycolytic enzymes, retardation of mitochondrial respiration, elevation of glucuronidation, and activation of pentose phosphate pathways, accompanied by a decrease in antioxidant activity and the onset of oxidative stress in rat liver. Resemblance and differences in the changes in the fibrosis models used are described, including energy metabolism alterations and antioxidant status in the used fibrosis models. The least pronounced changes in glucose metabolism and mitochondrial functions in the I/R and thioacetamide models were associated with the least advanced fibrosis. Ultimately, liver fibrosis significantly altered the metabolic profile in liver tissue and the flux of glucose metabolic pathways, which could be the basis for targeted therapy of liver fibrosis in CLD caused by toxic, cholestatic, or I/R liver injury.

Background In many clinical cases of extensive liver resection (e.g. due to malignancy), the residual portion is too small to maintain the body homeostasis. The resulting acute liver failure is associated with the compensatory growth inhibition, which is a typical manifestation of the ‘small for size’ liver syndrome. The study investigates possible causes of the delayed onset of hepatocyte proliferation after subtotal hepatectomy (80% liver resection) in rats. Results The data indicate that the growth inhibition correlates with delayed upregulation of the Tnf gene expression and low content of the corresponding Tnfα protein within the residual hepatic tissue. Considering the involvement of Tnf /Tnfα, the observed growth inhibition may be related to particular properties of liver macrophages – the resident Kupffer cells with CD68 + CX1CR3 − CD11b − phenotype. Conclusions The delayed onset of hepatocyte proliferation correlates with low levels of Tnfα in the residual hepatic tissue. The observed growth inhibition possibly reflects specific composition of macrophage population of the liver. It is entirely composed of embryonically-derived Kupffer cells, which express the ‘proregeneratory’ M2 macrophage-specific marker CD206 in the course of regeneration.

Background: Immunological imbalances characteristic of endometriosis may develop as early as the primary manifestations of the disease in adolescence. Objective: To evaluate subpopulation dynamics of monocytes and lymphocytes in peripheral blood and peritoneal fluid of adolescents with peritoneal endometriosis at diagnosis and after 1-year progestogen therapy. Methods: This study included 70 girls, 13–17 years old, diagnosed laparoscopically with peritoneal endometriosis (n = 50, main group) or paramesonephric cysts (n = 20, comparison group). Phenotypes of monocytes and lymphocytes of the blood and macrophages of the peritoneal fluid were analyzed by flow cytometry at diagnosis and during progestogen therapy. Results: Differential blood counts of CD16+ (p < 0.001) and CD86+ (p = 0.017) monocytes were identified as independent risk factors for peritoneal endometriosis in adolescents. During the treatment, cytotoxic lymphocytes CD56dimCD16bright (p = 0.049) and CD206+ monocytes (p < 0.001) significantly increased while CD163+ monocytes decreased in number (p = 0.017). The CD56dimCD16bright blood counts before (p < 0.001) and during progestogen therapy (p = 0.006), as well as CD206+ blood counts during the treatment (p = 0.038), were associated with the efficacy of pain relief after 1-year progestogen therapy. Conclusions: Adolescents with peritoneal endometriosis have altered counts of pro- and anti-inflammatory monocytes and lymphocytes both before and after 1-year progestogen therapy, correlating with treatment efficacy and justifying long-term hormonal therapy.

The aim of this work was to test whether we can treat cholestasis with dietary approaches applied after the onset of the disease. The effects of intermittent fasting and dietary restriction on liver damage caused by common bile duct ligation (BDL) in rats were studied, with particular attention paid to changes in the activity of enzymes of energy metabolism and antioxidant protection. Morphological changes in liver tissue and serum markers of liver damage were assessed in rats with BDL kept for one month on ad libitum diet, intermittent fasting, or 35% dietary restriction. We studied parameters of glucose metabolism (activity of glycolysis and gluconeogenesis enzymes), TCA cycle, and indicators of oxidative stress and redox status of the liver tissue. Dietary restriction resulted in an increase in gluconeogenesis activity, antioxidant capacity, and autophagy activation. When implemented after BDL, none of the dietary restriction protocols reduced the level of oxidative stress, detrimental morphological and biochemical alterations, or the fibrosis progression. Thus, under severe damage and oxidative stress developing in cholestasis, dietary restrictions are not hepatoprotective and can only be used in a pre-treatment mode.

Calcium ions (Ca2+) influx to mitochondrial matrix is crucial for the life of a cell. Mitochondrial calcium uniporter (mtCU) is a protein complex which consists of the pore-forming subunit (MCU) and several regulatory subunits. MtCU is the main contributor to inward Ca2+ currents through the inner mitochondrial membrane. Extensive investigations of mtCU involvement into normal and pathological molecular pathways started from the moment of discovery of its molecular components. A crucial role of mtCU in the control of these pathways is now recognized in both health and disease. In particular, impairments of mtCU function have been demonstrated for cardiovascular and skeletal muscle-associated pathologies. This review summarizes the current state of knowledge on mtCU structure, regulation, and function in different types of muscle tissues in health and disease.

Background: Diagnostic and treatment delays have caused significant impacts on the physical and emotional well-being of adolescents with endometriosis, though such research is limited. This study aimed to assess the effects of one-year dienogest therapy on the clinical picture, pain patterns, psycho-emotional status, and quality-of-life indicators in adolescents with endometriosis after surgical treatment. Methods: The study enrolled 32 girls aged 13–17 with peritoneal endometriosis to analyze one-year dynamics of the Visual Analog Scale (VAS), McGill Pain Questionnaire, Beck Depression Scale (BDI), Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale (HADS), Spielberger State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI) and SF-36 quality-of-life survey scores along with clinical and laboratory indicators before surgery and after one-year dienogest therapy. Results. The therapy provided a significant alleviation of endometriosis-associated clinical symptoms, including dysmenorrhea, pelvic pain, gastrointestinal/dysuria symptoms, decreased everyday activity (<0.001), a decrease in anxiety/depression scores (BDI, HADS, STAI), and quality-of-life improvement (<0.001). These effects were accompanied by beneficial dynamics in hormone and inflammatory markers (prolactin, cortisol, testosterone, estradiol, CA-125, neutrophil/lymphocyte ratio; <0.005) within reference ranges. A low body mass index and high C-reactive protein levels were associated with higher VAS scores; a high estradiol level was a factor for anxiety/depression aggravation (<0.05). Conclusions: Dienogest, after surgical treatment, significantly improved quality of life and reduced pain symptoms while showing good tolerability and compliance, and reasoning with timely hormonal therapy in adolescents with endometriosis.